RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
Presented by

Dr. P. VASANTHA KUMAR

M.B.A., M.C.A., M.Sc., M.L. M.Phil.(Mgmt.), Ph.D(Law)
Assistant Professor
Department of International Law
The Tamil Nadu Dr. Ambedkar Law University
Chennai – 600028
 RESEARCH

 It is the pursuit of truth with the help of

study, observations, comparison and
experiment.

 The main aim of research is to find out the

truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.

 The purpose of research is to discover answers

to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
 What is Research?
 Is it re-search?
 Research and reference
 Formal and material sources
Material sources – rule applicable to a given
situation
 French word – “recherché”
Careful & diligent research
 Controlled inquiry
 To gain knowledge
 To verify knowledge
 Objectives of Research
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else.
 Defining and redefining the problems.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables.
 Formulating the hypotheses or suggested solutions.
 Collecting, organizing and evaluating data.
 Making deductions and reading conclusions.
 Carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulating hypotheses.
 Motivation in Research

 Desire to face challenges in

solving the unsolved problems
 Desire to get intellectual joy doing
some creative work
 Desire to serve the society
 Desire to get responsibility
 Desire to get research degree
 Significance of Research
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and
it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking
and organisation.
 The role of research in several fields of applied
economics, whether related to business or to the economy
as a whole, has greatly increased in modem times.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government
policies in our economic system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various
operational and planning problems of business and
industry
 Research is equally important for social scientists in
studying social relationships and in seeking answers to
various social problems
 Significance of Research (Contd.)
 To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a
source of livelihood;

 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for

new ideas and insights;

 To literary men and women, research may mean the

development of new styles and creative work;

 To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the

development of new theories.

 To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis,

research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position
in the social structure;
 Research and its types
 Descriptive Research: Means description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present. Researcher only reports only what has
happened or what is happening

 Applied Research: Aims at finding solution for an immediate

problem facing a society or an industry/ business
organizations

 Quantitative Research: Based on the measurement of

quantity or amount. Applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.

 Qualitative Research: Concerned with qualitative

phenomenon, i.e. phenomenon relating to or involving quality
or kind.
 Research and its types (Contd.)
 Empirical Research: Relies on experience or
observations alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.

 Conceptual Research: Related to some abstract ideas

or theory. Used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or re-interpret existing ones.

 Fundamental Research: Mainly concerned with

generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

 Analytical Research: Researcher has to use facts on

information already available and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
 Research Methods
-Vs-
Research Methodology

Research Methods:
Refers to the methods or techniques which the
researchers use in performing research operations.

Research Methodology:
It may be understood as a science of studying
how research is done scientifically. To study the
various steps that are generally adopted by
researcher in studying his research problem along
with the logic behind them.
 Difference between Methods and Techniques
TYPE METHODS
1. Library Research (i)Analysis of historical records
(ii)Analysis of documents
2. Field Research (i) Non-participant direct observation
(ii) participant observation
(iii) Mass observation
(iv) Mail questionnaire
(v) Opinionnaire
(vi) Personal interview
(vii) Focused interview
(ix) Telephone survey
(x) Case study and life history
3. Laboratory Small groups study of random behavior,
Research play and role analysis
TECHNIQUES
 Recording of notes, Contents analysis, Tape and listening and
analysis.
 Statistical compilation and manipulations, references and
abstract guides, contents analysis.
 Observational behavioral scales, use of score cards, etc.
 Interactional recording possible use of tape recorders, photo
graphic techniques.
 Recording mass behaviour, interview using independent
observers in public places
 Identification of social and economic background of
respondents
 Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of
sociometric scales.
 Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and closed
questions
 Interviewer focuses attention upon a given experience and its
effects
 Used as a survey technique for information and for
discerning opinion may also be used as a follow up of
questionnaire
 Cross sectional collection of data for intensive analysis,
longitudinal collection of data of intensive character
Small groups study of random behavior, play and role analysis
Steps involved in Research Process

1. Identifying the Research Problem

2. Review of Literature
3. Formulation of Hypothesis
4. Research Design
5. Data Collection
6. Data Analysis and Interpretation
7. Report
8. Conclusion
9. Recommendation and Suggestions
10. Feedback
Identifying the Research Problem

What the researcher wants to do?

Why the researcher wants to do

research?

How the researcher wants to do it?

When - within how much time,

shall he/she be able to do it?
Identifying the Research Problem
 Merton, a sociologist had observed that ‘it is
more often difficult to find and formulate a
problem than to solve it’.

 Identification of a problem and formulation of a

research problem constitute the starting phase of
any research enterprise

 The success of a research enter-prise depends on

the selection of an appropriate problem and its
proper formulation

 Problems of wrong selection as well as weak

formulation of a research proposal
 Identifying the
Research Problem (Contd.)
Two equally significant parts of any
research
a. Identification of a research problem
b. Formulation of a research problem

Main sources of finding a research

problem
a. Research Supervisor
b. Research literature
c. Research funding agencies
Two broad approaches to problem formulation

(a) Deductive approach

In this case, we do make certain assumptions in
our mind about certain things and then apply them to
concrete situations. For example, Plato assumed three
elements in the personality of an individual: (1) Reason;
(2) Physical strength; and (3) Appetite. they are never
found in an absolute proportion in everyone.
(b) Inductive approach
In this case, we do not make any assumptions,
instead we study the situations objectively and then try
to draw some inferences. For example, Aristotle did not
jump to any generalisations but preferred to study the
constitutions of 158 states and then drew inferences.
 REVIEW
OF
LITERATURE
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 Review of literature is one of the most
important steps in the research process.
 It is an account of what is already known
about a particular phenomenon.
 The main purpose of literature review is
to convey to the readers about the work
already done & the knowledge & ideas
that have been already established on a
particular topic of research.
 Literature review is a laborious task, but
it is essential if the research process is to
be successful.
 MEANING OF LITERATURE
REVIEW
A literature review uses as its database
reports of primary or original scholarship &
does not report new primary scholarship itself.
The primary reports used in the literature may
be verbal, but in the vas majority of cases,
report are written documents. The types of
scholarship may be empirical, theoretical,
critical/analytic, or methodological in nature.
Second a literature review seeks to describe,
summarize, evaluate, clarify &/or integrate
the content of primary reports.
… (H.M. Cooper, 1988)
 MEANING OF LITERATURE REVIEW
(Contd.)
A literature review is an evaluative report of information
found in the literature related to selected area of study.
The review describes, summarizes, evaluates & clarifies
this literature. It gives a theoretical base for the
research & helps to determine the nature of research.
…(Queensland University, 1999)

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review

the critical points of knowledge on a particular topic of
research.
…(ANM, 2000)

A literature review is an account of what has been

already established or published on a particular research
topic by accredited scholars & researchers.
…(University of Toronto, 2001)
 Importance of Literature Review
 Identification of a research problem and
development or refinement of research questions.
 Generation of useful research questions or
projects/activities for the discipline.
 Orientation to what is known & not known about
an area of inquiry to ascertain what research can
best contribute to knowledge.
 Determination of any gaps or inconsistencies in a
body of knowledge.
 Discovery of unanswered questions about subjects,
concepts or problems.
 Determination of a need to replicate a prior study
in different study settings or different samples or
size or different study populations.
Importance of Literature Review (Contd.)
 Identification of relevant theoretical or conceptual
framework for research problems.
 Identification or development of new or refined clinical
interventions to test through empirical research.
 Description of the strengths & weaknesses of
design/methods of inquiry & instruments used in
earlier research work.
 Development of hypothesis to be tested in a research
study.
 Helps in planning the methodology of the present
research study. It also helps in development of research
instruments.
 Identification of suitable design & data collection
methods for a research study.
 Assistance in interpreting study finding & in developing
implications & recommendations.
 Purpose of Literature Review
 The purpose of a literature review is to
convey to the reader previous knowledge &
facts established on a topic, & their
strength & weakness.

 The literature review allows the reader to

be updated with the state of research in a
field & any contradictions that may exist
with challenges findings of other research
studies.

 It helps to develop research investigative

tools & to improve research methodologies.
 It also provide the knowledge about the problems faced by the
previous researchers’ while studying same topic. Besides enhancing
researchers’ knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review helps
to:
 Place each in the context of its contribution to the
understanding of subject under review.
 Describe the relationship of each study to other research studies
under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret & shed light on any gaps in
previous research.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point a way forward for further research.
 See what has & has not been investigated.
 Develop general explanation for observed variations in a
behavior or phenomenon.
 Identify potential relationship between concepts & to identify
researchable hypothesis.
 Learn how others have defined & measured key concepts.
 Identify data sources that other researchers have used.
 Develop alternative research projects.
 Discover how a research project is related to the work of others.
 Place one’s original work (in case of thesis or dissertation)context of
the existing literature.
 Sources of Literature Review

Literature can be reviewed

from two sources:

1. Primary sources
2. Secondary sources
 Primary Sources
 Literature review mostly relies on primary sources, i.e.
research reports, which are description of studies written
by researchers who conducted them.
 A primary sources is written by a person who developed
the theory or conducted the research, or is the
description of an investigation written by the person who
conducted it.
 Most primary sources are found in published literature.
 For example, a nursing research article.
 A credible literature review reflects the use of mainly
primary sources

Example of a primary source:

An original qualitative on patient experiences in the
ICU: Hupcey, J. E. (2000). Feeling safe the psychosocial
needs of ICU patients. Journal of Nursing Scholarship,
32:361-367.
 Secondary Sources
 Secondary source research documents are description of
studies prepared by someone other than the original
researcher.
 They are written by people other than the individuals
who developed the theory or conducted the research.
 The secondary sources may be used when primary
sources are not available or if researchers want external
opinions on an issue or problem or even the results of
their own research.

Example of a Secondary Source:

A literature review on patient experiences in the

ICU: Stein-Parbury, J. & Mckinley, S. (2000) patient
experiences of being in an intensive care unit: a select
literature review. American Journal of critical care, 9:20-
27.
Points to be considered for Literature Review
Be specific & be concise:
Briefly state specific findings listed in an article,
specific methodologies used in a study, or other important
points. Literature reviews are not the place for long quotes or
in-depth analysis of each point.

Be selective:
Researcher should narrow down a lot of information into
a small space for literature review. Just the most important
points (i.e. those most relevant to the review’s focus) must be
mentioned in each work of review.

Focus of current topics:

Researcher needs to analyse points such as if it is a
current article, & if not, how old it is: has its claims, evidence,
or arguments been superseded by more recent work; if it is not
current, then if it is important for historical background, etc.
Points to be considered for Literature Review
Ensure evidence for claims:
Researcher should focus on what support is given for
claims made in literature. What evidence & what type
(experimental, statistical, anecdotal, etc.) of evidences are
offered? Is the evidence relevant & sufficient? What arguments
are given? What assumptions are made, & are they warranted?

Focus on sources of evidences:

Researchers should ensure the reliability of the sources
of the evidence or other information – if they are from author’s
own experiments, surveys, historical records, government
documents, etc. He should check how reliable those sources
are.

Account of contrary evidences:

Does the author take into account contrary or
conflicting evidence & arguments?
How does the author address disagreements
with other researchers?
Points to be considered for Literature Review
Reference citation:
Any references cited in the literature review must be
included in the bibliography. The common practice is that the
reviewer does not list references in the bibliography that are
not directly cited in the literature review or elsewhere in the
paper /thesis.

Organization of literature review:

A literature review is organized by subtopic, not by
individual references. In a typical literature review, the
writers may cite several references in the same paragraph &
may cite the same reference in more than one paragraph, if
that source address more than one of the subtopics in the
literature review. Typically, discussion of each sources is
quite brief. The contribution the present reviewers make is
organizing the ideas from the sources into a cogent argument
or narrative that includes their perspectives.
Points to be considered for Literature Review
Avoid abbreviations:
Avoid technical terms, jargons & abbreviations.

Simple & accurate sentence structure:

A researcher should use simple sentences &
must avoid errors of grammar & punctuation

Referring original source:

The reviewer should focus on citing the material
that originates with each reference. This may require
a careful reading of the reference. If the reference
author refers to another source whose ideas are
relevant or interesting, it is better to track & use that
original reference.
TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
 INTRODUCTION
 A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of
the expected relationship between two or more
variables under study.

 A hypothesis helps to translate the research

problem & objectives into a clear explanation or
prediction of the expected results or outcomes of
the research study.

 A clearly stated hypothesis includes the variables

to be manipulated or measured, identifies the
population to be examined & indicates the
proposed outcome for the study.
 DEFINITION
 ‘Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or
explanation of the relationship between two
variables.’ It implies that there is a systematic
relationship between an independent & a
dependent variable.

 For example, dietary compliance will be greater in

diabetic patients receiving diet instruction in small
groups than in diabetic patients receiving
individualized diet instructions.

 Good & Hatt define hypothesis as a shrewd guess

or inference that is formulated & provisionally
adopted to explain observed facts or conditions &
to guide in further investigation.
 IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS
 Hypotheses enables the researcher to objectively
investigate new areas of discovery. Thus, it
provides a powerful tool for the advancement of
knowledge.

 Hypotheses provides objectivity to the research

activity.

 It also provides directions to conduct research such

as defining the sources & relevance of data.

 Hypotheses provides clear & specific goals to the

researchers. These clear & specific goals provide
the investigator with a basis for selecting sample &
research procedures to meet these goals.
 IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS (Contd.)

 Hypotheses provides link between theories & actual

practical research.

 It provides a bridge between theory & reality.

 A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely

to be most appropriate.

 As it is a tentative statement of anticipated results, it

guides the researcher towards the direction in which
the research should proceed.

 It stimulates the thinking process of researcher as the

researcher forms the hypothesis by anticipating the
outcome.
 IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS (Contd.)
 It also determines the most appropriate
research designs & techniques of data
analysis.

 Hypotheses provides understanding to the

researchers about what expect from the
results of the research study.

 It serves as framework for drawing

conclusions of a research study.

 Without hypotheses, research would be like

aimless wandering.
 Characteristics of Good Hypothesis

 Conceptual clarity:

Hypothesis should consist of clearly defined &

understandable concepts. It should be stated in very
terms, the meaning & implication of which cannot be
doubted. To facilitate the conceptual clarity,
hypothesis can be stated in declarative statement, in
present tense.

 Empirical reference:

Research must have an ultimate empirical

reference. No usable hypothesis can embody moral
judgments. A good hypothesis must have empirical
basis from the area of enquiry.
Characteristics of Good Hypothesis (Contd.)
 Objectivity:
Hypothesis must be objective, which facilitates
objectivity in data collection & keeps the research
activity free from researcher value - judgment.

 Specificity:
It should be specific, not general, & should
explain the expected relations between variables. For
example, regular yoga reduces stress.

 Relevant:
The hypothesis should be relevant to the
problem being studied as well as the objectives of the
study. Hypothesis must have relevance with theory
under test in a research process.
Characteristics of Good Hypothesis (Contd.)
 Testability:
Hypothesis should be testable & should not be a moral
judgment. It must be directly/indirectly observable &
measurable. The researcher can set up a situation that
permits one to assess if it is true or false. It must be
verifiable. For example, a statement such as ‘bad partners
produce bad children’. This sort of hypothesis cannot be
tested.

 Consistency:
A hypothesis should be consistent with an existing
body of theories, research findings, & other hypotheses. It
should correspond with existing knowledge.

 Simplicity:
A hypothesis should be formulated in simple &
understandable terms. It should require fewer conditions &
assumptions.
 Characteristics of Good Hypothesis (Contd.)

 Availability of techniques:
The researchers must make sure that methods are available
for testing their proposed hypotheses

 Purposiveness:
The researcher must formulate only purposeful hypotheses,
which has relevance with research problem & objectives.

 Verifiability:
A good hypothesis can be actually verified in practical terms.

 Profundity of effect:
A good hypothesis should have profound effect upon a variety
of research variables.

 Economical:
The expenditure of money & the time can be controlled if the
hypotheses underlying the research undertaken is good.
 Types of Hypothesis
Crude Hypothesis:
A crude Hypothesis is at the low level
of abstraction. It indicates the kind of data
to be collected and it does not lead to
higher theoretical research in the nature of
a law or a theory.

Refined Hypothesis: They are

(a) hypothesis that state the existence of
empirical uniformities
(b) hypothesis that are concerned with
relation of analytical variables
 Types of Hypothesis (Contd.)
 Simple hypothesis:
It is a statement which reflects the relationship between
two variables. For example, ‘the lower the level of hemoglobin,
the higher is the risk of infection among postpartum women’.

 Complex hypothesis:
It is a statement which reflects the relationship between
more than two variables. For example, ‘satisfaction is higher
among patients who are older & dwelling in rural area than
those who are younger & dwelling in urban area’.

 Associative hypothesis:
It reflects a relationship between variables that occurs or
exists in natural settings without manipulation. This hypothesis
is used in correlational research studies. For example,
Communication skills of health care providers & cost of care
related to the satisfaction of patients. It Predicts relationship
among variables but not the type of relationship.
 Types of Hypothesis (Contd.)
 Causal hypothesis:
It predicts the cause-and-effect relationship
between two or more dependent & independent
variables in experimental or interventional setting,
where independent variable is manipulated by
research to examine the effect on the dependent
variable.
The causal hypothesis reflects the
measurement of dependent variable to examine the
effect of dependent variable, which is manipulated
by the researcher. For example, prevalence of pin
site infection is lower in patients who receive pin
site care with hydrogen peroxided as compared to
patients who receive the pin site care with Betadine
solution.
 Types of Hypothesis (Contd.)

 Directional hypothesis:
It specifies not only the existence, but also the
expected direction of the relationship between
variables. Directional hypothesis states the nature of
the relationship between two or more variables such
as positive, negative, or no relationship. To express
the direction of relationship between variables, the
directional terms are used to state the hypothesis
such as positive, negative, less, more, increased,
decreased, greater, higher, lower, etc. For examples,
‘there is a positive relationship between years of
practicing experience & job satisfaction among
advocates’.
 Types of Hypothesis (Contd.)

 Non-directional Hypothesis:
It reflects the relationship between
two or more variables, but is does not
specify the anticipated direction & nature
of relationship such as positive or
negative. It indicates the existence of
relationship between the variables. For
example, ‘there is relationship between
years of practicing experience & job
satisfaction among advocates’.
 Types of Hypothesis (Contd.)

Logical Hypothesis:
It is the type in which hypothesis is
verified logically. Four canons in these
hypothesis are agreement, disagreement,
difference and residue.

Statistical Hypothesis:
The hypothesis which can be verified
statistically. The statement would be
logical or illogical but, if the statistics
verifies, it is statistical hypothesis.
 Types of Hypothesis (Contd.)

 Null hypothesis (H0):

It is also known as statistical hypothesis & is
used for statistical testing & interpretation of
statistical outcomes. It states the existence of no
relationship between the independent & dependent
variables. For example, ‘there is no relationship
between smoking & the incidence of coronary artery
disease’.

 Alternate hypothesis (H1):

It states the existence of relationship between
two or more variables. For example, ‘there is a
relationship between smoking & incidence of lung
cancer’.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Definition
 The Research Design is the master plan specifying
the methods & procedures for collecting &
analyzing the needed information in a research
study.

 Research Design refers to the plan, structure, and

strategy of research i.e., the blueprint / road map
that will guide the research process.

 Research design is a plan of how & where data are

to be collected & analyzed.

 Research design is the researcher's overall plan for

answering the research questions or testing the
research hypotheses.
 Definition (Contd.)
Research design can be
defined as a blue print to conduct
a research study, which involves
the description of research
approach, study setting, sampling
size, sampling technique, tools &
methods of data collection &
analysis to answer specific
research questions or for testing
research hypothesis.
 ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Qualitative With /
without
APPROACH Quantitative conceptual
frame
work
Both

METHOD OF ELEMENTS POPULATION,

ANALYSIS SAMPLE &
SAMPLING TECHNIC

TIME & METHOD OF DATA

TOOLS & COLLECTION
METHODS
 FACTORS AFFECTING
RESEARCH DESIGN
1) Nature of the research problem
2) Purpose of the study
3) Researcher’s knowledge & experience
4) Researcher’s interest & motivation
5) Research ethics & principles
6) Subjects & participants
7) Resources
8) Time
9) Possible control on extraneous variables
10) Users of the study findings
 Alternative to Research
 Authority
 Tradition
 Common sense
 Media myths
 Personal experience
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
1) Quantitative Research
2) Qualitative Research
3) Basic Research
4) Applied Research
5) Longitudinal Research
6) Classification Research
7) Comparative Research
8) Explorative Research
9) Descriptive Research
10) Explanatory Research
11) Causal Research
12) Theory-testing Research
13) Theory-Building Research
14) Action Research
 1) Quantitative Research
 It is based on methodological
principals of positivism and neo-
positivism
 It adheres to standards of strict
research design.
 Statistical analysis is used in it.
 2) Qualitative Research
 It is based on methodological
principals of phenomenology, symbolic
interactionism, hermeneutics.
 It aims at exploration of social world.
 Lazarsfeld: following elements are
there…. exploration, relationship
discovery, establishing construct,
testing hypothesis.
 3) Basic Research

 Purpose of gaining knowledge

 It advanced understanding
about social world
 Help in supporting & rejecting
existing hypothesis & theories
 4) Applied Research
 Aims at solving specific problems
 Aims at establishing policy
programs that will help to improve
social life
 Types of applied research are
action research, social impact
studies, cost-benefit analysis,
evaluation research
 5) Longitudinal Research
 It involves study of sample at more
than one point in time or occasion
Example - Trend studies, Panel
studies

Cross - sectional Research

 It involves study of many cases at
one point in time or occasion
 6) Classification research
 It aims at categorization of units
into groups
 To demonstrate differences
 To explain relationships
 7) Comparative Research
 To identify similarities
and differences between
units at all levels.
 8) Exploratory Research

It aims at gaining

information about
an issue in hand.
 9) Descriptive Research
 Usually it forms preliminary
study of a research project.
 It aims at describe social
events, relations and events.
 It provides background
information about an event in
question.
10) Explanatory Research

 It aims at explaining
social relations and
events.
 To build, test or revise
a theory.
 11) Causal Research

 It aims at establishing
cause and effect
relationship among
variables.
 12) Theory testing Research

 It aims at testing
validity of a theory
13) Theory building Research

 To establish and
formulate theory
 14) Action Research
 It is application of fact findings to practical
problem solving in a social situation with a
view to improve quality of action within it,
involving collaboration and co-operation of
researchers, practitioners and laymen.

 It can be situational (diagnose a problem and

attempts to solve it), collaborative,
participatory (researcher take part in
implementation of findings) and self-
evaluation (it involves constant evaluation
and adjustment of research and practice)
 SAMPLE
AND
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
 INTRODUCTION
 Sampling is a process of selecting representative units
from an entire population of a study.

 Sample is not always possible to study an entire

population; therefore, the researcher draws a
representative part of a population through sampling
process.

 In other words, sampling is the selection of some part

of an aggregate or a whole on the basis of which
judgments or inferences about the aggregate or mass is
made.

 It is a process of obtaining information regarding a

phenomenon about entire population by examining a
part of it
 TERMINOLOGY USED IN
SAMPLING
 Population: Population is the aggregation of all the units in
which a researcher is interested. In other words, population is
the set of people or entire to which the results of a research are
to be generalized. For example, a researcher needs to study the
problems faced by postgraduate students of SOEL; in this the
‘population’ will be all the postgraduate students who are in
SOEL.

 Target Population: A target population consist of the total

number of people or objects which are meeting the designated
set of criteria. In other words, it is the aggregate of all the cases
with a certain phenomenon about which the researcher would
like to make a generalization.

 Accessible population: It is the aggregate of cases that conform

to designated criteria & are also accessible as subjects for a
study.
 TERMINOLOGY USED IN SAMPLING (Contd.)

 Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting a representative

segment of the population under study.

 Sample: Sample may be defined as representative unit of a target

population, which is to be worked upon by researchers during
their study. In other words, sample consists of a subset of units
which comprise the population selected by investigators or
researchers to participates in their research project.

 Element: The individual entities that comprise the samples &

population are known as elements, & an element is the most basic
unit about whom/which information is collected. An elements is
also known as subject in research. The most common element in
nursing research is an individual. The sample or population
depends on phenomenon under study?
TERMINOLOGY USED IN SAMPLING (Contd.)
 Sampling frame: It is a list of all the elements or subjects
in the population from which the sample is drawn.
Sampling frame could be prepared by the researcher or an
existing frame may be used.

 Sampling error: There may be fluctuation in the values of

the statistics of characteristics from one sample to
another, or even those drawn from the same population.

 Sampling bias: Distortion that arises when a sample is

not representative of the population from which it was
drawn.

 Sampling plan: The formal plan specifying a sampling

method, a sample size, & the procedure of selecting the
subjects.
 PURPOSES OF SAMPLING
Economical: In most cases, it is not possible & economical for
researchers to study an entire population. With the help of
sampling, the researcher can save lots of time, money, &
resources to study a phenomenon.

Improved quality of data: It is a proven fact that when a person

handles less amount the work of fewer number of people, then it
is easier to ensure the quality of the outcome.

Quick study results: Studying an entire population itself will

take a lot of time, & generating research results of a large mass
will be almost impossible as most research studies have time
limits

Precision and accuracy of data: Conducting a study on an

entire population provides researchers with voluminous data, &
maintaining precision of that data becomes a cumbersome task.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
SAMPLE

 Representative
 Free from bias and errors
 No substitution and incompleteness
 Appropriate sample size
 SAMPLING PROCESS
Identifying and defining the target population

Describing the accessible population &

ensuring sampling frame

Specifying the sampling unit

Specifying sampling selection methods

SAMPLING PROCESS(Contd.)

Determining the sample size

Specifying the sampling plan

Selecting a desired sample

FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLING PROCESS

Nature of the researcher Nature of the sample

Inexperienced investigator
Lack of interest
Lack of honesty
Intensive workload
Inadequate supervision
Inappropriate sampling
technique
Equate supervision
Sample size
Defective sampling frame

Circumstances
Lack of time
Large geographic area
Lack of co-operation
Natural calamities
 TYPES OF SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES

Probability sampling Non-Probability

technique sampling technique

1. Simple random sampling 1. Purposive sampling

2. Stratified random sampling 2. Convenient sampling
3. Systematic random sampling 3. Consecutive sampling
4. Cluster/multistage sampling 4. Quota sampling
5. Sequential sampling 5. Show ball sampling
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
 It is based on the theory of probability.
 It involve random selection of the elements/members of the
population.
 In this, every subject in a population has equal chance to be
selected sampling for a study.
 In probability sampling techniques, the chances of systematic
bias is relatively less because subjects are randomly selected.
 It is a technique wherein the sample are gathered in a process
that given all the individuals in the population equal chances
of being selected.
 In this sampling technique, the researcher must guarantee
that every individual has an equal opportunity for selection.
 The advantage of using a random sample is the absence of
both systematic & sampling bias.
 The effect of this is a minimal or absent systematic bias,
which is a difference between the results from the sample &
those from the population.
Types of the probability sampling

1. Simple random sampling

2. Stratified random sampling
3. Systematic random sampling
4. Cluster/multi-stage sampling
5. Sequential sampling
 Simple random sampling
 This is the most pure & basic probability sampling design.
 In this type of sampling design, every member of population has an equal
chance of being selected as subject.
 The entire process of sampling is done in a single step, with each subject
selected independently of the other members of the population
 There is need of two essential prerequisites to implement the simple
random technique: population must be homogeneous & researcher must
have list of the elements/members of the accessible population.
 The first step of the simple random sampling technique is to identify the
accessible population & prepare a list of all the elements/members of the
population. The list of the subjects in population is called as sampling
frame & sample drawn from sampling frame by using following methods:
The lottery method
The use of table of random numbers
The use of computer
 Stratified Random Sampling
 This method is used for heterogeneous population.

 It is a probability sampling technique wherein the

researcher divides the entire population into
different homogeneous subgroups or strata, & then
randomly selects the final subjects proportionally
from the different strata.

 The strata are divided according selected traits of

the population such as age, gender, religion, socio-
economic status, diagnosis, education, geographical
region, type of institution, type of care, type of
registered nurses, nursing area specialization, site
of care, etc.
 Systematic Random Sampling
 It can be likened to an arithmetic progression, wherein
the difference between any two consecutive numbers is
the same.

 It involves the selection of every Nth case from list of

group, such as every 10th person on a patient list or
every 100th person from a phone directory.

 Systematic sampling is sometimes used to sample

every Nth person entering a bookstore, or passing down
the street or leaving a hospital & so forth

 Systematic sampling can be applied so that an

essentially random sample is drawn.
 Cluster or multistage Sampling
 It is done when simple random sampling is almost
impossible because of the size of the population.

 Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling unit

consisting of population elements.

 Then from each selected sampling unit, a sample of

population elements is drawn by either simple random
selection or stratified random sampling.

 This method is used in cases where the population

elements are scattered over a wide area, & it is impossible
to obtain a list of all the elements.

 The important thing to remember about this sampling

technique is to give all the clusters equal chances of being
selected.
 Cluster or multistage Sampling (Contd.)

 Geographical units are the most commonly used ones

in research. For example, a researcher wants to
survey academic performance of high school students
in India.

 He can divide the entire population (of India) into

different clusters (cities). Then the researcher
selects a number of clusters depending on his
research through simple or systematic random
sampling.

 Then, from the selected clusters (random selected

cities), the researcher can either include all the
high school students as subjects or he can select a
number of subjects from each cluster through
simple or systematic sampling
 Sequential Sampling
This method of sample selection is
slightly different from other methods.

Here the sample size is not fixed. The

investigator initially selects small
sample & tries out to make inferences;
if not able to draw results, he or she
then adds more subjects until clear-cut
inferences can be drawn.
 NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
 Introduction
 It is a technique wherein the samples are gathered in a process that
does not given all the individuals in the population equal chances of
being selected in the sample.

 In other words, in this type of sampling every subject does not have
equal chance to be selected because elements are chosen by choice not
by chance through nonrandom sampling methods.

 It is a technique wherein samples are gathered in a process that does

not give all the individual in the population equal chances of being
selected.

 Most researchers are bound by time, money, & workforce, & because of
these limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire
population & it is often necessary to employ another sampling
technique, the nonprobability sampling technique.

 Subject in a nonprobability sample are usually selected on the basis of

their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the
researcher.
 Introduction (Contd.)
 This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a
particular trait exists in the population.

 It can also be used when researcher aims to do a qualitative,

pilot, or exploratory study.

 It can be used when randomization is not possible like when

the population is almost limitless.

 It can be used when the research does not aim to generate

results that will be used to create generalizations.

 It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time,

& workforce.

 This technique can also be used in an initial study (pilot

study)
 Types of
Non-probability Sampling

1. Purposive sampling
2. Convenient sampling
3. Consecutive sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Show ball sampling
 1. Purposive Sampling
 It is more commonly known as ‘judgmental’ or ‘authoritative
sampling’.
 In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample
with a specific purpose in mind.
 In purposive sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are
fit for research compared to other individual. This is the reason why
they are purposively chosen as subject.
 In this sampling technique, samples are chosen by choice not by
chance, through a judgment made the researcher based on his or her
knowledge about the population
 For example, a researcher wants to study the lived experiences of
post disaster depression among people living in Tsunami affected
areas of Tamil Nadu.
 In this case, a purposive sampling technique is used to select the
subjects who were the victims of the Tsunami disaster & have
suffered post disaster depression living in Tsunami-affected areas of
Tamil Nadu.
 In this study, the researcher selected only those people who fulfill
the criteria as well as particular subjects that are the typical &
representative part of population as per the knowledge of the
researcher.
 2. Convenience Sampling
 It is probably the most common of all sampling techniques
because it is fast, inexpensive, easy & the subject are readily
available.
 It is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are
selected because of their convenient accessibility & proximity
to the researcher.
 The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to
recruit for the study & the researcher did not consider
selecting subjects that are representative of the entire
population
 It is also known as an accidental sampling.
 Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit.
 For example, if a researcher wants to conduct a study on the
older people residing in Chennai, & the researcher observes
that he can meet several older people coming for morning
walk in a park located near his residence in Chennai, he can
choose these people as his research subjects.
 These subjects are readily accessible for the researcher & may
help him to save time, money, & resources.
 3. Consecutive sampling
 It is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to
include all accessible subjects as part of the sample.

 This non-probability sampling technique can be considered as the

best of all non-probability samples because it include all the subjects
that are available, which makes the sample a better representation of
the entire population.

 It is also known as total enumerative sampling.

 In this sampling technique, the investigator pick up all the available

subjects who are meeting the preset inclusion & exclusion criteria.

 This technique is generally used in small-sized populations.

 For example, if a researcher wants to study the activity pattern of

post kidney-transplant patient, he can selects all the post kidney
transplant patients who meet the designed inclusion & exclusion
criteria, & who are admitted in post-transplant ward during a specific
time period.
 4. Quota Sampling
 It is nonprobability sampling technique wherein
the researcher ensures equal or proportionate
representation of subjects, depending on which
trait is considered as the basis of the quota.

 The bases of the quota are usually age, gender,

education, race, religion, & socio-economic
status.

 For example, if the basis of the quota is college

level & the research needs equal representation,
with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 first-
year students, another 25 second-year students,
25 third-year, & 25 fourth-year students.
 5. Snowball Sampling
 It is a nonprobability sampling technique that is used by
researchers to identify potential subjects in studies where
subjects are hard to locate such as commercial sex workers,
drug abusers, etc.
 For example, a researcher wants to conduct a study on the
prevalence of HIV/AIDS among commercial sex workers.
 In this situation, snowball sampling is the best choice for
such studies to select a sample.
 This type of sampling technique works like chain referral.
Therefore it is also known as chain referral sampling.
 After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for
assistance from the subject to help in identify people with a
similar trait of interest.
 The process of snowball sampling is much like asking
subjects to nominate another person with the same trait.
 The researcher then observes the nominated subjects &
continues in the same way until obtaining sufficient
number of subjects.
 PROBLEMS OF SAMPLING
 Sampling errors
 Lack of sample representativeness
 Difficulty in estimation of sample size
 Lack of knowledge about the sampling process
 Lack of resources
 Lack of co-operation
 Lack of existing appropriate sampling frames
for larger population
DATA COLLECTION
 METHODS OF COLLECTION OF
DATA
While deciding about the
method of data collection to be
used for the study, the researcher
should keep in mind two types. i.e.

• Primary Data
• Secondary Data
Collection of Primary Data
There are several methods of
collecting primary data. These are:-

 Questionnaires
 Observations
 Interviews
 Schedules
 Collection of Secondary Data
Secondary data means data that is already available i.e. it
may be either published or unpublished.
Published data are available in:-
 Various publications of the central, state or local
governments
 Various publications by foreign governments or international
bodies and their subsidiary organizations
 Technical and trade journals
 Books, magazines and newspapers
 Reports and publications of various organizations connected
with business and industry, Banks, Stock exchanges etc.
 Reports prepared by research scholars, universities,
economists etc in different fields
 Public records and statistics, historical documents and other
sources of published information
 Sources of unpublished data are
many and they include:-
 Diaries
 Letters
 Unpublished biographies and
autobiographies
 Data available with research scholars and
research workers, trade associations,
labour bureaus and other public/private
individuals and organizations
 Process of Analysis
 Editing
 Coding
 Classification
 Tabulation
 DATA ANALYSIS
AND
INTERPRETATION
 Introduction
 Sheer unfamiliarity with mathematical language presents
a serious obstacle that disappears as one employs it.
 Mathematical expressions are simply an alternative to
verbal ones. They are much more efficient in being able
to say quickly in numbers and nonverbal symbols what
would require many words.
 Mathematical expressions are clear and specific. They
avoid ambiguities that obscure our verbal
communication.
 Numbers and formulas are abstractions and thus should
offer no inherent confusions.
 If you regard quantitative analytical methods as possible
keys to unlock the meaning of data and expand your
interpretive powers, you will welcome their assistance
and adopt a positive attitude towards them.
NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
 The refinement and manipulation of data that prepares them
for the application of logical inferences.
 Statistical analytical methods may be used in valid ways or in
specious ways. This depends both on the honesty of the
researcher in selecting the appropriate formulas and data
inputs, and on his or her understanding of the formulas and
their outputs.
 For each analytical method, there is an appropriate sequence
that can be used.
 However, there are three chief phases for analysis:
 Bringing the raw data into order (arrays, tabulations,
establishing categories, percentages)
 Summarizing the data: measures of central tendency and
dispersion, and graphical presentation
 Applying analytical methods to manipulate the data so that
their interrelationships and quantitative meaning become
evident. For this purpose an appropriate analytical method
is to be selected: Selection criteria.
 INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Consider the following exchange

regarding survey data:

Look at the answers to a question, “If

you were buying an electric range or a gas
range completely equipped with all modern
features, what would it price be?” Average
price given for electric range was Rs.
11,900 and for gas range was Rs. 10,250.

Researcher: I think, it is advantageous for

the gas range.
 INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION (Contd.)

Suppose that a detergent manufacturer is trying to decide

which of three advertisements would be the most effective in
increasing sales of their detergent. They test the three ads by running
each at different times in newspapers in six different cities. Sales are

Advertise 1 2 3
Sales of boxes 2,396 3,654 2,576

This indicates that the ad 2 is the most effective.

Looking to the big difference, the researcher felt that there may be another
variable. Hence, following table was prepared:

Advt. A B C D E F TOTAL
1 379 400 420 380 421 396 2,396
2 401 384 1527 424 447 471 3,654
3 429 351 451 425 487 433 2,576
 Interpretive Process
 Our perceptions can be distorted and limited very easily, and
our thinking processes can take wrong turns too easily.
 There is no truth in the adage that “figures speak for
themselves”.
 When people have the figures to interpret, they state what
the figures mean, and dangerous errors are often committed.
 Firm discipline over one’s mental processes and the ability
to work as dispassionately as possible are necessary.
 For this purpose, every researcher will have to follow certain
maxims. They can be:
1. Produce honest and sober interpretations.
2. Keep objectives and simple principles in the
forefront.
3. Beware of the limitations of small samples.
4. Give fair weight to all evidence.
5. Give due attention to infrequent significant answers.
6. Recognise averages as mere tendencies.
7. Distinguish between opinion and fact.
8. Look for causes and do not confuse them with effects.
 BRINGING THE DATA IN TO ORDER
 Simplest way in which data can be brought into order is an array. This is a
simple tabulation.
- Minimum and maximum can be found.
- Range can be found.
- Quartiles can be found.
- Mode can be found.

 When there are only a few observations, setting up an array may not be too
tedious.

 In spite of the advantages of data array, this would be inefficient with a

sizable array of data such as is usually obtained in a marketing study. For
such data, suitable classifications are to be established. Then, we can place
individual observations in those categories. This is called a simple
tabulation. It is also referred to as a ‘one-way’ or a ‘marginal’ tabulation.

 Many research questions may be answered by simple tabulation of data.

However, simple tabulation merely shows a distribution of one variable at a
time, and may not yield the full value of data. Most data can be further
organised to yield additional information. Cross-tabulation is an extension
of one dimensional form in which the researcher can investigate the
relationship between two or more variables by simultaneously counting the
number of responses that fall in each of the classifications.
CONCLUSION
 Drawing Conclusion and
Predicting Outcomes
 Introductions and conclusions can be the most difficult parts of
papers to write. While the body is often easier to write, it needs a
frame around it. An introduction and conclusion frame your thoughts
and bridge your ideas for the reader.

 Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers

from their own lives into the "place" of your analysis, your conclusion
can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to
their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your
analysis and information should matter to them after they put the
paper down.

 Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject.
The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have
raised in your paper, to summarize your thoughts, to demonstrate the
importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of
the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final
impression and to end on a positive note.
 Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of
the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond
the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to
consider broader issues, make new connections,
and elaborate on the significance of your
findings.

 Your conclusion should make your readers glad

they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your
reader something to take away that will help
them see things differently or appreciate your
topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest
broader implications that will not only interest
your reader, but also enrich your reader's life in
some way. It is your gift to the reader.
 Drawing Conclusion
 Drawing conclusion a closely related skill to making inferences and
predicting outcomes, you may think of them as essentially the
same thing.

 Drawing Conclusions is very important in understanding what is

happening in a story. For example, many times an author will
describe story elements, rather than directly telling you where,
when, who, and so forth. We need to draw conclusions in order to
understand the important parts of the story.

 As you read, think about the characters, setting, problem, plot, and
solution.
 Did the author give you any clues to think about?
 Use the story clues and what you already know from your own
experiences (prior knowledge) to draw a conclusion about
what is happening in the story.
 Steps to draw a conclusion
 Think about what the author wrote.
 Think about your own experience or your prior
knowledge.
 Now make a conclusion using what the author
wrote, your own experience, and your prior
knowledge.

Example:
If you cannot stay on school nights and there
is school tomorrow, you cannot stay out night.
Comment: the conclusion, “…you cannot stay
out night,” is right, it is the only conclusion that
can be drawn from the stated fact.
 Predicting Outcomes
What is a Prediction?
Predictions are thoughts about what you think
will happen in a story before you read. A prediction is
more than just a guess. It should make sense with the
clues you have been given.

Why is making a prediction an important reading

strategy?

It helps us to focus on what we are reading about.

It helps us make connections about what we already
know to what we think we know.
It gets us excited about what we are reading.
 Predicting Outcomes (Contd.)
When is it important to predict outcomes?
• when reading.
• when you make a decision.
• when you are watching a movie.

How do we make Predictions to help us understand what we

are reading?

Before you begin reading , preview the title, table of

contents, and pictures. Ask yourself:
• “Does this remind me of any experiences in my life?”
• “Does this remind me of other books I have read?”
• “Have I read or heard something like this before?”
 Predicting Outcomes (Contd.)
As you are reading, look for clues that will lead you to
make a good prediction.
How we use our past experiences to help us predict
future outcomes can be seen in the following
Example :
 Your neighbor has mowed his lawn every Saturday
morning for as long as you can remember.
Can you predict what your neighbor will be doing next
Saturday?

Comment: You can predict your neighbor will be

mowing his lawn. If he has been doing it for as long as
you can remember, it is pretty likely he will be doing it
this Saturday.
 Predicting Outcomes (Contd.)
Drawing Conclusion :

 He had always wanted to serve his country, but this seemed

like madness. He was supposed to fight a war in a foreign
land, helping to protect people whom he didn't even know.
Michael had a strong sense of patriotism, but he was worried
about the bombs, death, and carnage that could await him
in Iraq. He pondered whether he would ever see his family
again.

What conclusions can you draw about how Michael is

feeling about going to war?
a. He feels proud of his country
b. He is looking forward to the challenge of being in the
military
c. He is afraid of going into battle (Answer)
d. He regrets joining the military
 Predicting Outcomes (Contd.)
 Drawing conclusion is a decision, opinion, or
judgment reached after thoughtful consideration of
material you have read. It must be based on
information you have read, but must go beyond
what the author states. A conclusion typical comes
after all of the information has been considered. You
can draw conclusion – logical summaries of
characteristics – based on the subject’s current and
past behavior.

Predicting Outcomes is the ability to predict what

will happen next based on two things : a. Clues
given in the picture or story or paragraph, b. What
you already know.
 PRESENTATION OF REPORT
A. Preliminary pages
• Title page
• Certificate of supervisor
• Table of contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgement
• Listing of tables
• Listing of figures
• Abbreviations
B. Main text
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Methodology
• Findings
• Limitations
• Conclusion and recommendations
C.End matter
• Appendix
• Bibliography
 Alphabetical order
 books reports journals
 name of author, title, place, publisher,
volume, page number
• Glossary
THANK YOU