Chapter One

Introductory Concepts and Definitions

Engineering Thermodynamics I
Chapter Objectives

• To introduce students to the basic concepts of

thermodynamics
• To introduce students to the various systems
and properties
• To introduce students to the dimensions and
units in thermodynamics
Thermodynamics

•Therme – heat
•Dynamis – power
•It is the study of energy.
What is
ENERGY?
Applications

Human body - body temperature measurement (Zeroth

law)
Ponder: Why do we feel uncomfortable in very hot
environments? How does the human body cool itself?
 Applications

Air Conditioning – heating, cooling,

humidification and dehumidification
processes to maintain comfort
Refrigeration Systems – Space cooling
Airplanes – Cabin comfort
Car Radiator – Engine Cooling
Applications – Coal Power Plant
Applications - Nuclear Power Plant
Applications - Internal Combustion Engines
• Automotive Engines
Applications - Gas Turbines
Applications – Refrigeration Systems
 Basic Concepts

The behaviors of the system can be studied from:

1. Macroscopic point of view
 The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics
is concerned with the gross or overall behavior.
 This is some times called classical
thermodynamics
 No model of the structure of matter at the
molecular, atomic and subatomic levels is
directly used in classical thermodynamics.
11
 Basic Concepts
2. Microscopic point of view
 concerned with the structure of matter.
 This is some times called statistical
thermodynamics
 Average behavior of the particles making up a
system.
For the great majority of engineering application,
classical thermodynamics not only provides a
considerably more direct approach for analysis and
design but also requires far fewer mathematical
application. 12
 Basic Concepts

An important step in any engineering analysis is to

describe precisely what is being studied.
In thermodynamics:
 the first step is to define a system.
 Once the system is defined and the relative
interaction with the other systems are
identified.
 One or more physical laws are applied
13
 Closed, Open and Isolated System
• In thermodynamics, system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• The region outside the system is called the surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system
from its surroundings is called the boundary.
 Closed, Open and Isolated System
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open,
depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume
in space is chosen for study.
 Closed System
Also called non-flow system.
Consists of a fixed amount of
mass and no mass may cross
the system.
The closed system boundary
may move.
Energy in the form of heat
and work can cross the
boundaries of a closed system.
 Example
• Sealed tanks
• Piston cylinder device
• Refrigeration system
 Open System

• Also called flow system.

• Mass as well as energy crossing
the boundary.
• It is called a control surface
because both mass and energy
can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
 Example
• Pumps
• Compressor
• Heat exchanger
• Engines
 Isolated System
• A general system of fixed mass where no heat or
work may cross the boundary.
• It is a closed system with no energy crossing the
boundaries and is normally a collection of a main
system and its surrounding that are exchanging
mass and energy among themselves.

Isolated Energy Mass

System Surr SYSTEM Surr
 Property
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Some familiar properties are pressure (P), temperature (T),
volume (V), and mass (m).
There are two types of property; intensive or extensive
Intensive properties -are those that are independent of the
size of a system.
• Temperature, Pressure, Age, Color,…
Extensive properties -are those that are depend on the size
of the system.
• Mass, Volume, Total energy,…
Property
 State
• Condition of the system at an instant of time as described or
measured by its properties.
• Consider a system not undergoing any change. The properties
can be measured or calculated throughout the entire system.
This gives us a set of properties that completely describes the
condition of a state.
• At a given state, all the properties are known; changing one
property changes the state.
 Equilibrium
• The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
• A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it
maintains thermal (uniform temperature), mechanical
(uniform pressure), phase (the mass of two phases, e.g
ice and liquid water, in equilibrium) and chemical
equilibrium.

After Thermal Equilibrium

Before
Process
• When any of the properties of a system change, the
state changes and the system is said to have
undergone a process.
• A process is a transformation from one state to
another.
 P
State 2

Process Path

State 1

System
 Quasi-static process
A quasi-static process is one:
occurs sufficiently slowly.
The deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is
infinitesimal.
All states of the system passes through are
equilibrium states.
A quasi-static process is an idealization of what
actually happens, but it is a reasonable
approximation. 27
• In most cases we will study systems by keeping one of the
thermodynamic properties constant.
• Some of the process are:

Process Property held constant

Isobaric Pressure
Isothermal Temperature
Isochoric Volume
Isentropic Entropy
 Cycle
•Series of process in which the initial state
of the first process is identical to the final
state of the last process.
P Process A
2

Process B
1

V
 Dimensions and Units
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The arbitrary magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units.
• In engineering thermodynamics, basically, there
are four dimensions. (primary dimension)
• Mass, Length, Time and Temperature
• The others are simply derived from primary units.
 Some Basic Properties Of Thermodynamics
 Specific Volume
• The volume occupied by a unit mass of a substance,
and it is designated by v.
Volume V 1
v  (m / kg ) 
3
mass m 
 Specific density /gravity

 The density of substance divided by the

density of water.
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid
per unit area.
Force F N
P   2 Pascal  Pa
Area A m
 The actual pressure at a given point is called the
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE and it is measured relative to
ABSOLUTE VACUUM (absolute ZERO PRESSURE)
 However, pressure are often measured relative to
atmospheric pressure, called GAGE or VACUUM
PRESSURE.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE is the force per unit area exerted into a surface sea
level by the weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of earth.

(Pgage)
Atmospheric Pressure
(Patm)
(Pvac)
(Pabs)
(Patm)
(Pabs)

Absolute Vacuum
(zero)
Pvac = Patm - Pabs Pgage = Pabs - Patm
(For pressure below Patm) (For pressure above Patm)
 Manometer
Measure small and moderate pressure differences.
Manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube
containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
 Pressure is the same in the
horizontal direction for a
fluid at rest
 Temperature
• It is considered as a thermodynamic property that is the measure
of the ENERGY CONTENT of a mass.
• When heat energy is transferred to a body, the body's energy
content increases and so does its TEMPERATURE.
• Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have reached
the same temperature.
• If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This simple fact is
known as the ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS.
 Temperature [Continued]
• If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third object, then
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• Thermal equilibrium implies same temperature
• The Zeroth Law gives a formal underpinning (foundation) of the
thermometer concept.
• The thermometer is the third object that tells us the temperature
of the objects are the same.

36
 Pure Substances: What is Pure Substances?

 A substance that has a fixed

chemical composition throughout
is called a PURE SUBSTANCE.
 Pure substance may exist in

different phases, but the chemical

compositions is the same.
 water made up of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom oxygen. It
will have the same composition
when in ice, liquid and vapor forms.
37
 Phases of A Pure Substance

 The substances exist in different phases, e.g. at room

temperature and pressure, copper is solid and mercury
is a liquid.
 It can exist in different phases under various condition.
 There are 3 Principal phases
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas
Each with different molecular structures.
38
 Phase-change Processes of Pure Substances

 There are many practical situations where two phases of a

pure substances coexist in equilibrium.
 E.g. water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the
boiler.
Solid: strong intermolecular bond
Liquid: intermediate intermolecular bonds
Gas: weak intermolecular bond

39
Gas
• Consider the piston-cylinder device containing liquid water at
20oC and 1atm.
 Under these conditions, water exists
in the liquid phase, and it is called a
compressed liquid, or a sub cooled
liquid.
 As the temperature rises, the liquid

water expands slightly, and so its

specific volume increases.
• At this point water still a liquid, but any
heat addition will cause some of the
liquid to vaporize.
• That is, a phase change process from
liquid to vapor is about to take place.
• A liquid about to vaporize is called
saturated liquid.
• Once boiling starts, the
temperature stops rising until the
liquid is completely vaporized (it is
a phase change process at p-
constant).
• During this process the only thing
that is changing is the volume.
• At this stage liquid and vapor phase
coexist in equilibrium and it is
called saturated liquid-vapor
mixture.
• At this point, the entire cylinder is filled
with vapor that is on the borderline of
the liquid phase.
• Any heat loss from this vapor will cause
some of the vapor to condense (phase
change from vapor to liquid).
• The vapor that is about to condense is
called a saturated vapor.
• At this stage the phase-change
process is completed, we get another
single-phase region (vapor).
• Further transfer of heat will result in
an increase in both the temperature
and the specific volume.
• A vapor that is not about to condense
(i.e. not a saturated vapor) is called a
superheated vapor.
This constant pressure
heating process can be
illustrated as:

45
s
Property Diagram

46
 Saturation

 Saturation is defined as a condition in which a mixture

of vapor and liquid can exist together at a given
temperature and pressure.
 Saturation pressure is the pressure at which the liquid
and vapor phases are in equilibrium at a given
temperature
 For a pure substance there is a definite relationship
between saturation pressure and saturation
temperature. The higher the pressure, the higher the
saturation temperature 47
The graphical representation of this relationship between
temperature and pressure at saturated conditions is called the
vapor pressure curve

48
 Latent Heat

 Latent heat: The amount of energy absorbed or released during

a phase-change process.
 Latent heat of fusion: The amount of energy absorbed during
melting. It is equivalent to the amount of energy released
during freezing.
 Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of energy absorbed
during vaporization and it is equivalent to the energy released
during condensation.
 At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7
kJ/kg and the latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg. 49
 P-V-T diagram

substance that contracts on substance that expands on

freezing. freezing.
 T

Top view

re
v
erat u
p
Tem

P P
w
vi e
v
P P
Tv
i ew

v T
 The T-V diagram
• Experimental result tells us, as the pressure is increased
further, the saturation line of the process will continue to
get shorter and it will become a point.
• This point is called the critical point of the substance and
it may be defined as the point at which the saturated
liquid saturated vapor states are identical.
• At pressures above the critical pressure, there is not a
distinct phase-change process.
• We can never tell when the change has occurred.
The T-V diagram
The P-V diagram
The P-T diagram
 Thermodynamic Property Table
 Thermodynamic properties of substance are usually given in tabular form to
facilitate calculation.

 Among them saturated, superheated steam and compressed liquid are the
most frequently used properties.

58
 Saturated liquid-vapor mixture

 During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and

part vapor. its quality (x) is defined as the ratio of the mass of
the vapor to the total mass of both vapor and liquid.
 The quality is zero for the saturated liquid and one for the
saturated vapor (0 ≤ x ≤ 1)

 For example, if the mass of vapor is 0.2 g and the mass of the liquid is 0.8 g, then
the quality is 0.2 or 20%.

masssaturated vapor mg
x 
masstotal m f  mg
59
 Moisture Content

 The moisture content of a substance is the opposite

of its quality. Moisture is defined as the ratio of the
mass of the liquid to the total mass of both liquid
and vapor
mg mg
x 
 Recall the definition of quality x m m f  mg

mf m  mg
 Then   1 x
m m
60
 Quality

Mixture of liquid and vapor

61
 Take specific volume as an example. The specific volume of the saturated
mixture becomes
v  (1  x )v f  xv g
 The form that is most often used

v  v f  x (v g  v f )

u  u f  xu fg
h  h f  xh fg
s  s f  xs fg 62
 Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
• The properties of saturated liquid and saturated vapor for water are listed in
Thermodynamics tables.
 Superheated steam table
• In the region to the right of the saturated vapor line and at temperatures
above the critical point temperature, a substance exists as superheated
vapor.
• Compared to saturated vapor, superheated vapor is
characterized by
• Lower pressures (P < Psat at a given T)
• Higher temperatures (T > Tsat at a given P)
• Higher specific volumes (v > vg at a given P or T)
• Higher internal energies (u > ug at a given P or T)
• Higher enthalpies (h > hg at a given P or T)
 Compressed liquid table
• Compressed liquid tables are not as commonly available.
• In the absence of compressed liquid data, a general
approximation is to treat compressed liquid as saturated liquid
at the given temperature.

In general, a compressed liquid is characterized

by
• Higher pressures (P > Psat at a given T)
• Lower temperatures (T < Tsat at a given P)
• Lower specific volumes (v < vf at a given P or T)
• Lower internal energies (u < uf at a given P or T)
• Lower enthalpies (h < hf at a given P or T)
 How to Choose the Right Table
• Given the temperature or pressure and one other property from the group v, u, h,
and s, the following procedure is used.
• For example if the pressure and specific volume are specified, three questions are
asked: For the given pressure,

 If the answer to the first question is yes, the state is in the compressed
liquid region.
 If the answer to the second question is yes, the state is in the saturation
region.
 If the answer to the third question is yes, the state is in the superheated
region.
 Important Definition
o Critical point - the temperature and pressure above which
there is no distinction between the liquid and vapor phases.

o Triple point - the temperature and pressure at which all three

phases can exist in equilibrium.

o Sublimation - change of phase from solid to vapor.

o Vaporization - change of phase from liquid to vapor.

o Condensation - change of phase from vapor to liquid.

o Fusion or melting - change of phase from solid to liquid.

68
69
 Equation of State
The relationship among the state variables, temperature,
pressure, and specific volume is called the equation of state.

There are several equations of state, some simple and others

very complex.

The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances

in the gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of state.

This equation predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas quite

accurately within some properly selected region.
• Based on our experience in chemistry and physics we recall that the
combination of Boyle’s and Charles’ laws for gases at low pressure
result in the equation of state for the ideal gas as

T 
P  R   Pv  RT PV  mRT  nMRT
v
• The constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant.
• The gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from

Ru
R (kJ / kg.K )
M

• Where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass

(also called molecular weight) of the gas. The constant Ru is the

same for all substances, and its value is 8.314KJ/Kmol K

m  nM
• The ideal-gas equation of state can be written in several different
forms

V  mv  PV  mRT
mR  ( MN ) R  NRu  PV  NRuT
V  Nv  Pv  RuT

• the properties of an ideal gas at two different states are related to

each other by
PV PV
1 1
 2 2
T1 T2

• Air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon etc can be treated as

ideal gases.
 The amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by one
degree is called the specific heat at constant volume
Cv for a constant-volume process and the specific
heat at constant pressure Cp for a constant pressure
process. They are defined as

 u   h 
C v    and C P   
 T  v  T  P
  Using the definition of enthalpy (h = u + Pv) and writing
the differential of enthalpy, the relationship between the
specific heats for ideal gases is
h  u  Pv
dh  du  RdT
CP dt  CV dt  RdT
CP  CV  R

 The specific heat ratio, k is defined as

CP
k
Cv
 For ideal gases u, h, Cv, and Cp are functions of temperature alone.
The Δu and Δh of ideal gases can be expressed as

u  u 2  u1  C v (T2  T1 )

h  h2  h1  C P (T2  T1 )
Compressibility factor (measure of deviation from ideal gas)

• The ideal-gas equation is very simple and thus very convenient

to use.
• This deviation from ideal-gas behavior at a given temperature
and pressure can accurately be accounted for by the
introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility
factor Z defined as

• For real gases Z can be greater than or less than unity.

PV  ZRT
 P T
PR  TR 
Pcr Tcr