Operating System –Class II

Unit IV- FILE SYSTEMS AND I/O

SYSTEMS
Mass Storage system – Overview of Mass Storage Structure, Disk
Structure, Disk Scheduling and Management, swap space management;
File-System Interface - File concept, Access methods, Directory
Structure, Directory organization, File system mounting, File Sharing
and Protection; File System Implementation- File System Structure,
Directory implementation, Allocation Methods, Free Space
Management, Efficiency and Performance, Recovery;
I/O Systems – I/O Hardware, Application I/O interface, Kernel I/O
subsystem, Streams, Performance.
II. File Access Methods
• Sequential Access
• Direct Access
• Other access Methods
 1. Sequential Access
• Simplest method
• Information in the file is processed in order, one record after the other.
• Editors and compilers usually access files in this fashion.
• read next()—reads the next portion of the file and automatically
advances a file pointer.
• write next()—appends to the end of the file and advances to the end of
the newly written material.
• On some systems, a program may be able to skip forward or backward n
records for some integer n.
Sequential-access File
 2. Direct Access (Relative Access)
• A file is made up of fixed-length logical records that allow programs to
read and write records rapidly in no particular order.
• The direct-access method is based on a disk model of a file, since disks
allow random access to any file block.
• Here, the file is viewed as a numbered sequence of blocks or records.
• There are no restrictions on the order of reading or writing for a direct-
access file.
• Databases are often of this type
• read(n), where n is the block number, rather than read next()
• write(n) rather than write next().
 2. Direct Access (Relative Access)
• The block number provided by the user to the operating system is
normally a relative block number.
• A relative block number is an index relative to the beginning of the
file.
• The first relative block of the file is 0, the next is 1, and so on.. (But
absolute disk address may be 14703 for the first block and 3192 for
the second)
• The use of relative block numbers allows the operating system to
decide where the file should be placed. (Allocation Problem).
 3. Other Access Methods
• Other access methods can be built on top of a direct-access method.
• The index contains pointers to the various blocks.
• With large files, the index file itself may become too large to be kept in
memory.
• One solution is to create an index for the index file.
• The primary index file contains pointers to secondary index files, which point
to the actual data items.
• IBM indexed sequential-access method (ISAM)
• Small master index, points to disk blocks of secondary index
• File kept sorted on a defined key
• All done by the OS
Simulation of Sequential Access on Direct-access File
Example of Index and Relative Files
 III. Directory and Disk Structure
• How to store file?
• A storage device can be used in its entirety for a file system.
• Also, It can also be subdivided for finer-grained control.
• For example, a disk can be partitioned into quarters, and each quarter can hold a
separate file system
• Storage devices can also be collected together into RAID (Redundant Array
of Independent Disks)sets that provide protection from the failure of a
single disk.
• Any entity containing a file system is generally known as a volume.
• The volume may be
• a subset of a device,
• a whole device, or
• multiple devices linked together into a RAID set
 III. Directory and Disk Structure(Contd..)
• Each volume that contains a file system must also contain information
about the files in the system
• This information is kept in entries in a device directory or volume
table of contents.
• records information—such as name, location, size, and type—for all files on
that volume
A Typical File-system Organization
 1. Storage Structure
• A general-purpose computer system has multiple storage devices, and
those devices can be sliced up into volumes that hold file systems.
• Computer systems may have zero or more file systems, and the file
systems may be of varying types.
• Consider Solaris has
• tmpfs – memory-based volatile FS for fast, temporary I/O
• objfs – interface into kernel memory to get kernel symbols for debugging
• ctfs – contract file system for managing daemons
• lofs – loopback file system allows one FS to be accessed in place of another
• procfs – kernel interface to process structures
• ufs, zfs – general purpose file systems
 2. Directory Overview
• The directory can be viewed as a symbol table that translates file
names into their directory entries.
• The operations that are to be performed on a directory
• Search for a file
• Create a file
• Delete a file
• List a directory
• Rename a file
• Traverse the file system
Directory Structure

• A collection of nodes containing information about all files

Directory

Files
F1 F2 F4
F3
Fn

Both the directory structure and the files reside on disk

 2. Directory Overview (Contd..)
• Most common schemes for defining the logical structure of a
directory.
• Single-Level Directory
• Two-Level Directory
• Tree-Structured Directories
• Acyclic-Graph Directories
• General Graph Directory
Single-Level Directory
• Simplest directory structure
• A single directory for all users

• Naming problem
Two-Level Directory
• Separate directory for each user

 When a user job starts or a user logs in, the system’s master file
directory (MFD) is searched.
 The MFD is indexed by user name or account number, and each
entry points to the UFD for that user.
 Path name
 Can have the same file name for different user
 Efficient searching
Tree-Structured Directories
 One bit in each directory entry defines the entry as a file (0) or as a
subdirectory (1)
 Special system calls are used to create and delete directories
 When reference is made to a file, the current directory is
searched
 If a file is needed that is not in the current directory, then the
user usually must either
 specify a path name or
 change the current directory to be the directory holding that
file
 To change directories, a system call is provided that takes a
directory name as a parameter and uses it to redefine the
current directory.
 Path names can be of two types: absolute and relative
 Absolute- begins at the root and follows a path down to the
specified file, giving the directory names on the path
 Relative- defines a path from the current directory
Assume current directory is root/spell/mail
Tree-Structured Directories
 Tree-Structured Directories (Cont)
• Absolute or relative path name
• Creating a new file is done in current directory
• Delete a file
rm <file-name>
• Creating a new subdirectory is done in current directory
mkdir <dir-name>
Example: if in current directory /mail
mkdir count

Deleting “mail”  deleting the entire subtree rooted

by “mail”
Acyclic-Graph Directories
• Have shared subdirectories and files
Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
• A shared file (or directory) is not the same as two copies of the file.
• With two copies, each programmer can view the copy rather than
the original.
• With a shared file, only one actual file exists, so any changes made
by one person are immediately visible to the other.
• When people are working as a team, all the files they want to
share can be put into one directory.
• The UFD of each team member will contain this directory of
shared files as a subdirectory.
• Even in the case of a single user, the user’s file organization may
require that some file be placed in different subdirectories
Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
• Shared files and subdirectories can be implemented in several
ways.
• A link is effectively a pointer to another file or subdirectory
• A link may be implemented as an absolute or a relative path name.
• When a reference to a file is made, we search the directory.
• If the directory entry is marked as a link, then the name of the real file
is included in the link information
• We resolve the link by using that path name to locate the real file.
Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
• Shared files and subdirectories can be implemented in several
ways.
• Simply duplicate all information about them in both sharing directories
• A major problem with duplicate directory entries is maintaining
consistency when a file is modified.
Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
• Problem with deletion
• Overcome by
• The deletion of a link need not affect the original file; only the link is
removed
• If the file entry itself is deleted, the space for the file is deallocated,
leaving the links dangling
• We can search for these links and remove them as well
Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
• Problem with deletion
• Overcome by
• Another approach to deletion is to preserve the file until all references
to it are deleted.
• we must have some mechanism for determining that the last reference
to the file has been deleted.
• keep a list of all references to a file (directory entries or symbolic links).
• When a link or a copy of the directory entry is established, a new entry
is added to the file-reference list.
• When a link or directory entry is deleted, we remove its entry on the
list.
• The file is deleted when its file-reference list is empty
General Graph Directory
• Acyclic-graph structure cannot ensure that there are no cycles
• When we add links, the tree structure is destroyed, resulting in a
simple graph structure.
• How do we guarantee no cycles?
• Allow only links to file not subdirectories
• Garbage collection
• Every time a new link is added use a cycle detection algorithm to determine
whether it is OK
General Graph Directory
File System Mounting
• A file system must be mounted before it can
be accessed.
• A unmounted file system (i.e., Fig. 11-11(b))
is mounted at a mount point
 File System Mounting
• The operating system is given the name of the device and the
mount point.
• the location within the file structure where the file system is to be
attached.
• Typically, a mount point is an empty directory.
• On a UNIX system, a file system containing a user’s home directories
might be mounted as /home;
• OS verifies that the device contains a valid file system
• OS notes in its directory structure that a file system is
mounted at the specified mount point
Mount Point
 File System Mounting (Contd.,)
• Consider the actions of the Mac OS X operating system
• Whenever the system encounters a disk for the first time the Mac
OS X operating system searches for a file system on the device.
• If it finds one, it automatically mounts the file system under the
/Volumes directory, adding a folder icon labeled with the name of
the file system (as stored in the device directory)
• The user is then able to click on the icon and thus display the newly
mounted file system.
File Sharing
• Sharing of files on multi-user systems is desirable
• Sharing may be done through a protection scheme
• On distributed systems, files may be shared across a
network
• Network File System (NFS) is a common distributed
file-sharing method
• If multi-user system
• User IDs identify users, allowing permissions and
protections to be per-user
Group IDs allow users to be in groups, permitting group
access rights
• Owner of a file / directory
• Group of a file / directory
File Sharing – Remote File Systems
• Uses networking to allow file system access between systems
• Manually via programs like FTP
• Automatically, seamlessly using distributed file systems
• Semi automatically via the world wide web
• Client-server model allows clients to mount remote file
systems from servers
• Server can serve multiple clients
• Client and user-on-client identification is insecure or complicated
• NFS is standard UNIX client-server file sharing protocol
• CIFS is standard Windows protocol
• Standard operating system file calls are translated into remote calls
• Distributed Information Systems (distributed naming
services) such as LDAP, DNS, NIS, Active Directory implement
unified access to information needed for remote computing
File Sharing – Failure Modes

• All file systems have failure modes

• For example corruption of directory structures or
other non-user data, called metadata
• Remote file systems add new failure modes,
due to network failure, server failure
• Recovery from failure can involve state
information about status of each remote
request
• Stateless protocols such as NFS v3 include all
information in each request, allowing easy
recovery but less security
File Sharing – Consistency Semantics
• Specify how multiple users are to access a
shared file simultaneously
• Similar to Ch 5 process synchronization algorithms
• Tend to be less complex due to disk I/O and network
latency (for remote file systems
• Andrew File System (AFS) implemented complex
remote file sharing semantics
• Unix file system (UFS) implements:
• Writes to an open file visible immediately to other users
of the same open file
• Sharing file pointer to allow multiple users to read and
write concurrently
• AFS has session semantics
• Writes only visible to sessions starting after the file is
closed
Protection
• File owner/creator should be able to control:
• what can be done
• by whom
• Types of access
• Read
• Write
• Execute
• Append
• Delete
• List
Access Lists and Groups
• Mode of access: read, write, execute
• Three classes of users on Unix / Linux
RWX
a) owner access 7  111
RWX
b) group access 6  110
RWX
c) public access 1  001

• Ask manager to create a group (unique name), say G,

and add some users to the group.
• For a particular file (say game) or subdirectory, define
an appropriate access.

Attach a group to a file

chgrp G game
Windows 7 Access-Control List Management
A Sample UNIX Directory Listing