The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1974

• Polluted or contaminated water have

been found to be injurious to public
health for the purposes of domestic,
commercial, industrial, agricultural
or other legitimate uses or to health
of animals and aquatic life.
 Four major sources of law
• The Indian legal system provides four major sources of law for
addressing water pollution problems.
1. Comprehensive scheme of administrative regulation through
the permit system of the water (Prevention and control of
Pollution)Act of 1974,
2. Provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986
relating to water quality
3. Public nuisance actions against polluters, including
municipalities charges with controlling water pollution.
4. The common right of riparian owners to unpolluted water.
In addition, the union Government’s Department of
Environment, forests and wildlife has developed an action plan for
the prevention of pollution of Ganga.
 Water pollution :-Scope of the problem
• Water pollution is becoming acute in a number of
regions of India.
• Most of the rivers are polluted by the direct
discharge of industrial effluents and sewage into
them.
• Pollution levels are high in the River Gangaes in
certain areas, and it is unfit as a drinking water
supply source.
• The main source of water pollution in India is
sewage, which comprise 90% of the pollutants, while
10% comes from industry. Many of the cities do not
have sewage and water treatment system.
• M.C.Mehta v. Union of India AIR 1988, SC 1037
(action against tanneries polluting the river
Ganga) and M.C.Mehata vs Union of India,AIR
1988 sc 1115 (action against municipalities
polluting the Ganga).
 Objective of the law
• This is an Act which came on the statute book in pursuance of clause
(I) of Article 252 of the constitution, consequent on resolution passed
by all the houses of Legislature of the states of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
Harayana, Himchal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya
pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and west Bengal.
• The Act was enacted to provide for the prevention and control of
water pollution and maintaining or resorting wholesomeness of
water, for the establishment of boards, with a view to carrying out
these purposes, for the prevention and control of water pollution, for
conferring functions relating there to and conferring on and assigning
to such boards powers and functions relating there to and for
matters connected there with.
• The other states may adopt this particular Act if they pass a
resolution under Article 252 (1) of the constitutes.
 Objective of the law
• The objective of the Act as already observed
is to prevent and control water pollution and
maintain or restore wholsomeness of water.
• In order to remove administrative and
practical diffculties that emerged over the
years after the enforcement of the Act, Many
of the provisions were amended by the water
(prevention and control of pollution)
Amendment Act, 1988.
 Sources of water pollution
• Encyclopedia of Environmental Pollution and
control has enumerated the following sources of
contamination of water pollution.
1. Domestic water pollution
2. Industrial water pollution
3. Agricultural Water pollution
4. Solid waste pollution
5. Thermal pollution
6. Shipping water pollution
7. Radioactive water pollution
 Domestic water pollution
• It includes wastewater from homes and commercial establishments.
• These material have been largely organic and get oxidized by bacterial
decompostion to nitrate, phosphate, carbon dioxide, and water.
• As this type of decomposition needs the use of dissolved oxygen.
• It places an oxygen demand on the system.
• Approximatly 70% of the pollution of the world is domiciled in building
connected to sewage treatment system.
• The majority of these system have been inadequate or insufficent and
consist treatment.
• An average Indian family throws away wastes of about 50kgs/week.
• Bombay city alone produce more than 3500 tonnes of garbage and 200
million tonnes of sewage every day.
 Sources of water pollution
• A recent survey of 312 class-I cities and towns reveals that
the total quantity of sewage discharged from these towns is
about 8200 million liters per day(MCD).
• On a nation wide average, about 55 percent of the wastes
processed by municipal treatment plants comes from homes
and commercial establishment and 45 percent from
industries.
• . The total quantity of majour plant nutrient in terms of
N,P2O5 and K2O for 8000 MLD of raw sewage generated in
the country works out to be 400 tonnes of nitrogen, 136
tonnes of P2,O5 and 480 tonnes of K 2O per day at the
average concentration of 50 mg/j of nitrogen, 17 mg/lit of
P2,O5, and 60 mg/lit of K2O
 Industrial water Pollution
• There are water using industries which are
discharging wastes with a total BOD load about
three to four times as large as the load from
sewered population. Only 7 to 8% of Industrial
waste waters have been disposed of in municipal
sewer system, but they constitute about half of the
total municipal load.
• Unfortunately, only a small percentage of the
approximately 300000 factories using and
contaminating water in their manufacturing
processes adequatly treat water prior to its release.
 Industrial water Pollution
• The Industrial waste water contains raw materials processed chemicals,
final products, processed intermediates, processed by products and
impurities of the industry,
• The Industrial pollutants may be classified as-
a) Organic substances that deplete oxygen content and increase
biological oxygen demand (BOD);
b) Inorganic substances like carbonate, chloride, nitrogen that render the
water unfit for use and encourage growth of microplants;
c) Acids and alkalies which affects the growth of fish and other.
d) Toxic substances like cynide, acetylene, phenol, heavy metal like
mercury, lead, arsenic which cause damage to the flora and fauna.
e) Oil and other floating substances,
f) Colour producing materials like dyes which are asthetically
objectonable
g) Oil and other floating substances of water bodies.
 Industrial water Pollution
Chlorine which is added to water to control growth of algae and
bacteria in the cooling system of power station, may persist in
streams to cause mortality of plankton and fish.
Heavy fish mortality in river sone near Dehri on sone in Bihar is
reported to be caused by free chlorine content of the chemical
wastes discharged by factories near Mirjapur in U.P.
In India all the major rivers have become polluted.
The river Damodar is perhaps the most heavily polluted river.
River mini-Mahi in Baroda has been another heavily polluted
river which is having a Vareity of industrial and petrochemical
wastes.
 Industrial water Pollution
The river cooum through madras has got
polluted by sewage so much that not even the
Zooplankton have been able to thrive in it.
One litre of cooum water is having as much as
900 mg/lit, iron, 275 mg/lit of lead ,1313 mg/lit
of nickel and 32 mg/lit of zinc.
Besides heavy metal. Very high level of
phosphate alicates and nitrates also occur in the
water, sulphate levels ranging from 80- 408 mg.
 Industrial water Pollution
The river Ganga from Haridwar to culcutta is
regarded as one unending sewer which is fit only to
carry urban liquid waste , half burnt dead bodies
carrion, pesticides and insecticides.
Nearly 312 industrial units are dumping their waste
into the river, only a dozen have effluent treatment
facilities.
The 27 cities contribute 902 million litters of waste
water to the river each day.
The water of Ganga affects the health of 250 million
people of northern India.
 Preliminary
• This act may be called the water (Prevention
and control of pollution) Act,1974.
• Initially the act was applicable to the states of
Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Harayana, Himchal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karanataka,
kerala, Madya preadesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and
west Bengal and Union territories and it shall
apply to such other states which adopt this act
by resolution passed in that behalf under clause
(1) of Article 252 of the constitution.
 Constitution of Central Board
The Central Board shall consist following
members, namely
(a) A full time chairmen, being person having
special knowledge or practical experience in
respect of matters relating to environmental
protection or person having knowledge and
experience in administrating institutions dealing
with the matteres aforsaid, to be nominated by
central government.
 Constitution of Central Board
(b) Such number of officials not exceeding five, to be
nominated by the central Government to represent that
Government.
© Such number of officials not exceeding five to be
nominated by the Central Government from amongst the
members of the state board, of whom not exceeding two shall
be from amongst the members of the local authorities
functioning within the state.
(d) Such numbers of non officials not exceeding three to be
nominated by the central government to represent the interest
of Agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or any other intrest
which in the opnion of the central Government, ought to be
represented.
 Constitution of Central Board
(e) Two person to represent the companies or
corporation owned, controlled or managed by
the central Government to be nominated by that
Government.
(f) A full time member secretory possessing
qualification and experience of scentific,
engineering or management aspects of pollution
control, to be appointed by central Government.
 Constitution of Central Board
Section 3 of the water pollution Act,1974, as well as
section 3 of the Air pollution act, 1981 relates to the
constitution of central Board,
Rules 3 and 4 of the water (Prevention and control of
pollution Rules, 1975 deal with the salaries,
allowances and other conditions of services of the
chairman and members, secretaries respectively.
Rule 7 of the said rules deals with powers and duties
of the chairman whereas rule 9 deals with powers and
duties of the member-secretary, Rule 8 empowers the
Central Board for creation and abolition of posts.
 Terms and conditions of services of members
• A member of board, other than a member of
secretary shall hold office for a term of three
years from the date of his nomination.
• But he shall continue to hold his office evenafter
the expiration of his term untill his successor
enters upon the office.
• A member of a board may be removed before the
expiry of his term of office either by the central
government or by the state government, as the
case may be after giving him a reasonable
opportunity of showing cause against him.
 Powers and Function of Boards
• It is generally provided that the central board shall have the
main function of promoting cleanliness of streams and wells in
different areas of the states.
• Without prejudice to this function the central board may
perform all or any of the following functions. namely.
• 1. Advice the central government on any matter concerning the
prevention and control of the water pollution.
• 2. Co-ordinate the activities of the state board and resolve
dispute among them.
• 3.Provide technical assistant and guidance to the state boards,
carry out and sponsor investigations and research relating to
problems of water pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution.
 Powers and Function of Boards
4. Plan and organise the training of person engaged or to be
engaged in programmes for the prevention, control or abatement of
water pollution on such terms and conditions as the central board
may specify.
5. Organize through mass media a comprensive programme
regarding the prevention and control of water pollution.
6.Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data
relating to water pollution and the measures devised for its
effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or
guides relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and the trade
effluents and disseminate information connected therewith.
7. Lay down, modify in consultation with the state government
concerned, the standards for a stream or well.
 Powers and Function of Boards
Provided that different standards may be laid down for
the same stream or well or for different streams or
wells, having regard to the qualitybof water, flow
characterstics of the stream or well and the nature of
the use of the water in such stream or well or streams
or wells.
Requiring any person concerned to construct new
system for the disposal of sewage and trade effluents
or to modify, alter or extend any such existing system
or to adopt such remedial measures as are necessary to
prevent, control or abate water pollution.
 Natural Method of Waste Water Disposal
• The method of disposal of wastewater may be
classified under the following category
i. Natural methods –
a .By dilution b. By land treatment
ii. Artificial methods
a. Primary treatment
b. Secondary treatment
iii. Combined Methods-
c. Primary treatment
d. Effluent disposal by natural methods.
 Dilution
• A Prominent method of natural disposal, consists of
discharging the wastewater into receiving water body
(such as river, sea, lake etc).
• This is done on the assumption that sufficient
dissolved oxygen is available in the water body so that
biochemical oxygen demand is satified.
• If however, the diluting water is not sufficent to supply
the biological (or biochemical) oxygen demand to
oxidize the entire matter present, there will be nuisane
of foul odour and unssightly islands of half digested
floating, putrefying matter at the surface.
 Dilution
• In addition to this problem, the depletion of
oxygen would kill the aquatic life, and if this
dilution water is used at the downstream side
for drinking water purpose, it will cause
danger to public health.
• Hence modern practice is to give atleast
primary treatment to the waste-water before
the effluent is disposed off by natural
methods.
 Dilution

• We normally follow the combined method of

primary treatment of wastewater and then
the disposal of the effluent by natural
methods,
• In some cases, it may be even necessary to
have both primary treatment as well as
secondary treatment before the effluent is
disposed off by natural methods.
 Standards of Dilution for discharge of
wastewaters into Rivers.
• The ratio of the quantity of the diluting water to
that of the sewage is known as the dilution factor,
and depending upon this factor, the royal
commission report on sewage disposal has laid
down the following standards and degrees of
treatment required to be given to particular
sewage.
• The below standards have been operative in
England since 1912.and had also been followed in
India without much variance.
 Standards of dilution
• The standard given above have been operative
in England since 1912.
• However, the requirements laid down in IS
4764-1973 should be adhered to while
disposing sewage or sewage effluent in a body
of water.
• Also, where the dilution is low, these standards
may have to be made stringent to ensure that
the receiving water conforms to the standards
IS:- 2296-1974
 Self purification of natural Streams
• When the wastewater or the effluent is discharged into a natural stream,
the organic matter is broken down by bacteria to ammonia, nitrates,
suplates , carbon dioxide etc.
• In this process of oxidation the dissolved oxygen content of natural water is
utilized .
• Due to this, deficiency of dissolved oxygen is created. As the excess organic
matter is stabilized, the normal cycle will be reestablished in a process
known as self purification where in the oxygen is replenished by its
reaeration by wind, Also the stable by products of oxidation mentioned
above are utilized by plants and algae to produce carbohydrates and oxygen.
• Water quality standards are often based upon maintenance of some
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration which will protect the natural
cycle in the stream while taking advantage of its natural assimilative
capacity.
• Action involved in self purification are physical, chemical and biological in
nature as explained below
When a reactant loses electrons during a reaction, it is called oxidation. When a
reactant accumulates electrons during a reaction, it is called reduction. When metals
react with acid, this is a common occurrence. When a reactant loses electrons during a
reaction, it is called oxidation
 Oxidation
• Oxidation reduces the biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) of wastewater, thus, the
toxicity of some impurities.
• In this treatment, some impurities are
converted to carbon dioxide, water, and bio-
solids. Chemical oxidation is also frequently
used for disinfection.
 Zone of pollution in the stream
• The self purification process of stream
polluted by the wastewater or effluent
discharged into it can be divided in to
following four zones.
1. Zone of degradation
2. Zone of active decomposition
3. Zone of recovery
4. Clear water zone.
 Oxygen sag Analysis
• The oxygen sag or oxygen deficit in the
stream, at any of time during the self
purification process is the difference between
the saturation DO content and the actual DO
content at that time
• Oxygen deficit ,D= saturation DO- Actual DO
The normal saturation DO value for fresh water
depends upon the temperature, and its value
varies from 14.62 mg/lit at 0⁰ C to 7.63 mg/lit
at 30⁰ C respectively
 Oxygen sag Analysis
• At the Point where wastewater is discharged into the
stream, it is not necessary that the DO content of the
stream will be equal to the saturation, DO , there may
be intial oxygen deficit Do(say).
• At this stage, when the wastewater effluent, with an
initial BOD load L0 is discharged into the stream, the
DO content of the stream starts depleting and the
oxygen deficit (D) increases.
• The variation of oxygen deficit (D) with the distance
along the stream (and hence time of flow from the
point of pollution) is depicted by the oxygen sag curve
as shown in figure. Along with BOD removal curve.
 Oxygen sag Analysis
• The major point of interest in the oxygen sag
analysis is the point of minimum DO, or point
of maximum deficit.
• The maximum or critical deficit, labelled as Dc
occurs at the inflection point of the oxygen sag
curve.
 Deoxygenation and rexygenation curve
• When pollution load is discharged into the stream, the
DO content of the stream goes on depleting.
• This depletion of DO content is known as deoxygenation.
• The rate of deoxygenation depends upon the amount of
organic matter remaining (Lt) to be oxidized at any time
t, as well as temperature (T) of the reaction.
• The variation or depletion of DO content of the stream
with time is depicted by the deoxygenation curve,
shown by curve-II, in absence of aeration.
• The originate below the deoxygenation curve indicate
the oxygen remaining in the natural stream after
satisfying the biochemical demand of oxygen.
Oxygen Sag Analysis
 Deoxygenation and rexygenation curve
• It should be noted that the deoxygenation curve
is similar to the first stage BOD curve and it can
be expressed mathematically as per
• Lt=Lo(10 –Kt), in the absence of aeration.
• Though the DO content of the stream is gradually
consumed due to BOD load, atmosphere supplies
oxygen continuously to the water through the
process of rearation or reoxygenation. In other
words, along with deoxygenation, reoxygenation
or reaeration also continuonly takes place.
 Deoxygenation and rexygenation curve
• The rate of reoxygenation depends upon, (i)
Depth of water in the stream (more for shallow
depth) ; (ii) Velocity of flow in the stream (less
for stagnant water ); (iii) Oxygen deficit below
saturation DO and (iv) temperature of water.
• Curve-III in figure shows reoxygenation curve
along with the oxygen sag curve and
deoxygenation curve. The rate of reoxygenation
can also be expressed mathematically as shown
in further slides.
 Mathematical Analysis
(Streeter –Phelps equation)
• The entire analysis of oxygen sag curve can be
easily done by super imposing the rates of
deoxygenation and reoxygenation as
suggested by streeter-phelps analysis given
below
 Standards of dilution based on Royal Commission
Report
Sr.No Dilution factor Standards of Purification required
1 Above 500 No treatment is required. Raw sewage can be
directly discharged into the volume of dilution
water.
2 Between 300 to 500 Primary treatment such as plain sedimentation
should be given to sewage, and the effluents
should not contain suspended solids more
than 150 ppm.
3 Between 150 to 300 Treatment such as sedimentation, screening
and essentially chemical precipitation are
required. The sewage effluent should not
contain suspended solids more than 60 ppm.
4 Less than 150 Complete through treatment should be given
to sewage. The sewage effluent should not
contain suspended solids more than 30 ppm,
and its 5 days B.O.D. at 18.3 C should not
exceed 20ppm.
 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
• Previously known as Indian Standards Institution (ISI),
has therefore laid down its guiding standards for
sewage effluents, vide IS 4764-1973 and for industrial
effluents vide IS:2490-1974 as shown in Table.
• These tolerance limits are supposed to be the national
guidelines for guiding the various state pollution control
boards for prescribed their legally enforceable
standards, depending upon the water quality and
dilution available in their respective surface water
sources, and the type of effluents produced by the
different industries.
 BIS (ISI) standards for discharge of sewage and industrial
effluents in surface water sources and public sewers.
Characteristics of Tolerance limit for sewage Tolerance limit for industrial effluent
Effluent Effluent discharged into discharged into
surface water sources, as per
IS-4764-1973

Inland surface water, Public sewers as per

as per IS 2490-1974 IS-3306-1974

BOD 20 mg/lit 30 mg/lit 500 mg/lit

COD -- 250 mg/lit ---

pH value 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0

Total suspended 30 mg/lit 100 mg/lit 600 mg/lit

solids

Oil and grease ---- 10 mg/lit 100 mg/lit

Cyanide as CN 0.2 mg/lit 2 mg/lit

Sulphide S 2 mg/lit

Fluorides 2 mg/lit
 BIS (ISI) standards for discharge of sewage and industrial
effluents in surface water sources and public sewers.
Characteristics of Tolerance limit for sewage Tolerance limit for industrial effluent
Effluent Effluent discharged into discharged into
surface water sources, as per
IS-4764-1973

Inland surface Public sewers as

water, as per IS per IS-3306-1974
2490-1974

Cadmium --- 2 mg/lit ---

Chromium --- 0.1 mg/lit 2 mg/lit
copper --- 3 mg/lit 3 mg/lit
lead --- 0.1 mg/lit 1 mg/lit
Arsenic --- 0.2 mg/lit
Nickel --- 0.01 mg/lit
selium --- 0.05 mg/lit
 General standards for Discharge of Environment pollutants from
Effluents into surface water sources, public sewers and marine coast
under Environment (protection)rule,1986.
Characteristics of Standards prescribed under Environment (protection) Rules,1986 of
Effluent , Name of GOI for
pollutant I n the
effluent

Inland surface water Public sewer Marine coast (seas

and ocean)
Colour and Odour All efforts should be made All efforts should be made All efforts should be made to
to remove colours and to remove colours and remove colours and
unplesent odours as far as unplesent odours as far as unplesent odours as far as
possible. possible. possible.

Total suspended solids 100 mg/lit 800 mg/lit 1. 100 mg/lit for process
waste water 2. for cooling
water effluent, 10% above
total suspended matter of
influent
Particle size of Shall pass 850 micron a. Floatable solids
suspended solids sieve. max 3 mm
b. Settlable solids
max 850 micron

BOD at 20 C 30 mg/lit 350 mg/lit 100 mg/lit

 General standards for Discharge of Environment pollutants from
Effluents into surface water sources,public sewers and marine coast
under Environment (protection)rule,1986.
Characteristics of Standards prescribed under Environment (protection) Rules,1986 of
Effluent , Name of GOI for
pollutant I n the
effluent
Inland surface Public sewer Marine coast (seas and
water ocean)
COD 250 mg/lit 250 mg/lit

pH value 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0

Ammoniacal Nitrogen 50 mg/lit 50 mg/lit a. 50 mg/lit

Sulphide 2.O mg/lit 5.0 mg/lit
lead 0.1 mg/lit 1.0 mg/lit 2.0 mg/lit
Cadmium 2.0 mg/lit 1.0 mg/lit 2.0 mg/lit
Iron-fe 3 mg/lit 3 mg/lit 3 mg/lit
Nitrate -nitrogen 10 mg/lit 20 mg/lit
 General standards for Discharge of Environment pollutants from
Effluents into surface water sources,public sewers and marine coast
under Environment (protection)rule,1986.
Characteristics of Standards prescribed under Environment (protection) Rules,1986
Effluent , Name of of GOI for
pollutant I n the
effluent
Inland surface water Public sewer Marine coast (seas and
ocean)
Pesticides

1. Benzene 10ug/lit 10ug/lit

2.DDT 10ug/lit 10ug/lit

3. Endosulfan 10ug/lit 10ug/lit

4.copper 9600 ug/lit 9600 ug/lit

5.sulphur 30 ug/lit a. 30 ug/lit

• Refer following slides collected from slide
share
• To understand Ist BOD and II stage BOD kindly
refer upcoming slides.
• Kindly do refer numerical on BOD5
• Do practice of Numerical 8.5,8.6, 8.7
Values of BOD and treated Sewage
 First stage BOD formulation
• At a given temperature the rate at which BOD is satisfied at any
time (i.e. rate of deoxygenation) may be assumed to be directly
proportional to the amount of organic matter present in sewage.
• In other works, the exertion of BOD is considered to be first
order reaction defined by
• Lt =amount of first stage BOD remaining in the sample at any
time t (or oxygen equivalent of carbonaceous oxidisable
organic matter present at any time t), expressed as mg/lit
• K’ = rate constant signifying the rate of oxidation of organic
matter, having a unit (day)-1 . Its value depends upon the nature
of organic matter present and the temprature during the
reaction.
• t= time in days.
First Stage BODD
 First stage BOD formulation
• Thus we conclude that the ultimate first stage BOD of a given
wastewater is equal to the initial oxygen equivalent of the organic
matter present in the sample of wastewater.
• Yu - is thus a fixed quantity for the given specimen, and does not
depends on the temperature during the reaction.
• The value of K (is rate constant to the base, 10, or deoxygenation
constant) determine the speed of BOD reaction, wiyhout influencing
the ultimate BOD (i.e. Yu). The value of K depends upon (i) type of
wastewater and (ii) temprature during the reaction. The range of K
at 20 C reaction temprature, may typically vary between 0.05 to 0.3
day-1 , depending upon the type of waste. For the same ultimate
BOD, the oxygen uptake will vary with the value of K, as illustrated
in figure. Higher the value of K, faster will be the reaction. Table
gives typical value of K at 20 C , for various types of waters and
wastewaters.
First stage BOD curve
 Determination of K and L
• The values of ultimate BOD Lo (which is
approximatly equal to 20-day BOD ) and rate
constant K can be computed form a series of
BOD measurement at various times t (days).
• The usual methods used for computations of K
and Lo are 1. Methods of least squares 2.
Methods of moments 3. the daily difference
method 4. the rapid ratio methods and 5.
Thomas method. We shall discuss here the first
and last methods.
•
 Second Stage BOD
• As stated earlier, carbonaceous matter is oxidised in
the first stage of biochemical reaction, while
nitrogenous matter is oxidised in the second stage.
• Some of the autotrophic bacteria capable of using
oxygen to oxidize noncarbonaceous matter, such as
ammonia to nitrites and nitrates. This second stage
reaction is called nitrification.
• Thus nitrogenous oxygen demand caused by the
autotrophic bacteria is called the second stage BOD
Figure shows the influence of nitrification
on BOD curve.
 Second stage BOD
• It should be noted that at 20 C, the reproduction
rate of nitrifying bacteria is very slow and it takes
about 6 to 10 days treach significant numbers and
to exert a measurable oxygen demand.
• The interference caused by their presence can be
eliminated by pretreatment of sample, such as
pasteurization, chlorination or acid treatment.
• Alternatively, certain inhibitory agents (such as
methylene blue, thicurea etc.) may be used.
 Limitation of BOD test
• Despite widespread use of BOD test it has following limitations.
1. BOD test measure only biodegradable organics.
2. Pretreatment is needed if the sample contains toxic wastes.
3. The effects of nitrifying bacteria should be reduced or eliminated
by pretreatment or by use of inhabitory agents before the test is
applied.
4. It is essential to have high concentration of active bacteria
present in the sample wastewater. If relatively clean industrial
wastes are to be analysed a high concentration of active,
acclimated seed bacteria is required to be applied.
5. The test looses its stoichiometric validity after the soluble organic
matter present in the solution has been used or exhausted.
6. For the BOD test, the 5 day period may or may not correspond to
the point where soluble organics matter present has been used.
 IMP

• It is interesting to note that the 5 day BOD test

was originally devised by the British Royal
Commission of sewage disposal, and the 5 day
period was specially selected because all the
rivers in England takes less than 5 days to
meet the sea. Also, since the mean temperature
of river water in summer was 18.3 C, the
incubation temprature was fixed as 20 C
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• The BOD test takes a minimum of 5 days time, and due to this, it is not
useful in the control of treatment processes.
• An alternative test is the COD test, which can be used to measure content
of organic matter of both wastewater as well as natural water.
• COD can be determined only in 3 hours in contrast to 5 days of BOD test.
• In COD test, a strong chemical oxidizing agent is used in an acidic medium
to measure the oxygen equivalent of organic matter that can be oxidised.
• The COD test involves an acidic oxidation with potassium dicromate . A
measured amount of potassium dicromate is added to the sample. The
acidified sample is then boiled for 2 hours, cooled and the amount of
dicromate remaining is measured by titration with ferrous ammonium
sulphate.
• To accelerate the oxidation of certain types of organic compounds, a
catalyst, usually silver sulphate is required to aid the oxidation.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• When dicromate is used as oxidizing agent,
the principal reaction may be represented in a
general way by the following unbalanced
equation.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• The COD test is specifically more suitable to measure organic matter present
in industrial wastes having compounds that are toxic to biological life.
• However, COD results are generally higher than BOD values since the test
will oxidize materials such as fats and lignins which are only slowly
biodegradable.
• No clear correction exists between BOD and COD in general, but at specific
treatment plants, a correlation is possible.
• When once a correlation has been established, the COD measurement, which
can be concluded within 3 hour, can be used to good advantages for the
control and operation of those treatment plants, for typical untreated domestic
wastes the ratio COD/BOD is found to vary from 1.25 to 2.5. A higher value
of the ratio indicates that the wastewater is difficult to biodegrad.
• For non-biodegradable wastewater, the ratio exceeds 10.
• The limiting value of COD of wastewater, generally specified by the
authorities is 250 mg/lit.
 Total Organic carbon (TOC)
• One approach used to evaluate the amount of organic matter present in the
wastewater is to determine the amount of organic carbon in the wastewater.
• The total organic carbon test (TOC test) is specially applicable to small
concentration of organic matter. The TOC test consists of acidification of the
wastewater sample to convert inorganic carbon to co2 which is then stripped .
• The sample is then injected into a high temperature furnace where it is
oxidized in the presence of a catalyst.

• The CO2 that is produced is quantitatively measured by means of an infrared

analyser, and converted instrumentally to orignal organic carbon content.
• The error due to the presence of inorganic carbon can be eliminated by
acidification and aeration of the sample prior to the analysis.
 Total Organic carbon (TOC)
• The carbonaceous analyzer, patented by Dow chemical
company, provides a measure of TOC of an aqueous sample in
approximately two minutes. The test is rapid, accurate, and
correlates moderately well with BOD.
• However, certain organic compounds may not be oxidised, and
the measured TOC will be slightly less than the actual amount
present in the sample.
• The major obstacle to widespred use of TOC is the cost of the
equipment and the skill necessary in its operation.
• For typical untreated domestic wastewater, the BOD/TOC ratio
varies from 1.0 to 1.6.
• Table gives some typical TOC values for domestic wastewater.
 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
• This a theoretical method of computing the oxygen demand of
various constitutes of the organic matter present in wastewater.
• The organic matter present in the wastewater may be of animal
or vegetable origin, consisting of principal groups such as
carbohydrates, protein, fats and products of their decomposition.
• Each one of these is a typical combination of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen, based on its chemical formula.
• Hence if the chemical formulae of the constitutes of the organic
matter are known, ThoD can be easily computed.
• For example, glycine, commonly present in wastewater has a
chemical formula [CH2(NH2)COOH].
• Its OD can be analytically determined by assuming the
following steps in the reactions.
 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
• Its OD can be analytically determined by
assuming the following steps in the reactions.
1. In the first step, carbon is converted to CO2
and nitrogen is converted to ammonia.
2. In the second step, ammonia is oxidizes to
nitrite.
3. In the third step, nitrite is oxidized to nitrate.
The ThOD will then be the sum of the oxygen
required for all three steps of reaction, mentioned
above.
 Relative stability
• Relative stability of wastewater is defined as
the ratio of available oxygen to the required
oxygen satisfying first stage BOD. The available
oxygen will include dissolved oxygen (DO) as
well as oxygen present as nitrite or nitrate.
 Population equivalent
• The wastewater carried by a sewer consists mainly of domestic
sewage and the industrial wastewater. Since the contribution of
solids to sewage should be nearly constant on a per capita basis,
the BOD contribution (expressed in gram/person per day)
should also be constant.
• Generally , BOD contribution per capita per day may be taken
as 80 g/day (or 0.08 Kg/day).
• Industrial wastewater are generally compared with per capita
domestic sewage, through the concept of population equivalent
(PE ) using per capita BOD value as the basis.
• Thus we have
• PE = Total BOD5 of the industrial wastewater (Kg/day) /
[BOD5 value per capita/day
Population equivalent
 Population equivalent
• For example, if the total BOD5 of an industrial wastewater is 800 Kg/day and
BOD5 value is 0.08 Kg/capita/day.
• Population equivalent, PE =800/0.8 = 10000.
• Similarly, if at the point of measurement, we have a combined wastewater
consisting of domestic sewage as well as industrial wastewater, the
population equivalent of the combined wastewater can be found by
dividing BOD5 of the combined wastewater by the per capita/day BOD
value.
• Generally, The population equivalent is used to indicate the strength of
industrial wastewater required for (i) estimating the treatment required at
the common treatment plant (municipal treatment plant) and (ii) charging
appropriate levy on the industries to meet the proportionate cost of treating
waste in the municipal treatment plant.