OPTIC FIBER

By V.SRINATH
 What is an OPTIC FIBER
»Optical fibre is composed of several elements.
The construction of a fibre optic cable consists
of a core, cladding, coating buffer, strength
member and outer jacket.
»The optic core is the light-carrying element at
the centre. The core is usually made up of a
combination of silica and germania(Germanium
dioxide).
»The cladding surrounding the core is made of
pure silica. The cladding has a slightly lower
index of refraction than the core. The lower
refractive index causes the light in the core to
reflect off the cladding and stay within the core.
 WHY OFC ?
Medium / Link Carrier Information Capacity
Copper Cable 10 MHz 1 Mb
(short distance) (ADSL Modem)
Coaxial Cable 100 140 Mbps (BSNL)
(Repeater every 4.5 MHz
km)
UHF Link 2 GHz 8 Mbps (BSNL)
2 Mbps (Rly.)
MW Link (Repeater 7 GHz 140 Mbps (BSNL)
every 40 km) 34 Mbps (Rly.)
OFC 1550 2.5 Gbps(STM-16 : Rly.)
nm 10 Gbps (STM-64: BSNL)
1.28 Tbps (128 Ch. DWDM)

20 Tbps (Possible)
Fiber Technology
 How does Optical Fiber propagate
light ?
•Light injected into the core of the glass fiber will follow the
physical path of that fiber due to total internal reflection of the light
between the core cladding.
Optical fiber propagates light for angle of incidence > critical
angle

RI of Core > RI of cladding

 WHAT IS REFRACTIVE INDEX
»Index of refraction is the ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to the velocity of light in a material.
•RI (n)=c/v
»Index of Refraction = Light of velocity (vacuum)©
Light of velocity (material)(V)
•Index of Refraction in air 1.0
•Index of Refraction in glass 1.5
•light in vacuum (c=300000km/s)
 TRANSMISSION WINDOWS
Optical fiber transmission uses wavelengths that are in
the near-infrared portion of the spectrum, just above the
visible, and thus undetectable to the unaided eye.
Typical optical transmission wavelengths are 850 nm,
1310 nm, and 1550 nm.
Both lasers and LEDs are used to transmit light through
optical fiber.
Lasers are usually used for 1310- or 1550-nm single-
mode applications.
LEDs are used for 850- or 1300-nm multimode
applications.
 Fiber Optic Transmission
Windows
There are ranges of wavelengths at which the fiber
operates best. Each range is known as an operating
window. Each window is centered on the typical
operational wavelength, as shown in Table
Window Operating Wavelength

800 – 900 nm 850 nm

1250 – 1350 nm 1310 nm
1500 – 1600 nm 1550 nm
These wavelengths were chosen because they best
match the transmission properties of available light
sources with the transmission qualities of optical
fiber.
Basic fiber optic communication
system
 Bending of Light Ray

Angle of refraction
Rarer Refracted
Medium Ray
RI = n2
b

Angle of incidence
a a Fresnel reflection
Denser
Medium Incident Reflected
RI = n1 Ray Ray
n1 > n2 Velocity of light in medium = c/RI
Snell’s Law : n1 sin a = n2 sin b
 Critical Angle of Incidence
Rarer Medium
RI = n2

90 90oRefraction

c
Denser Incident Ray
Medium
RI = n1 Snell’s Law : n1 sin a = n2 sin b
n1 > n2 n1 sin c = n2 sin 90 = n2

Critical Angle of incidence (c) = sin-1 (n2/n1)

•Critical angle is an angle at which the refraction angle will be 90 degrees to the normal
 Total Internal Reflection

Rarer
Medium
RI = n2
90 90oRefraction

c
Denser
Medium Incident Total Internal Reflection
RI = n1 Rays Velocity of light in medium = c/RI
n1 > n2 Snell’s Law : n1 sin a = n2 sin b
 Snell’s Law
• Snell’s Law gives relation ship between the
different angles of light as it passes from
one transparent material to another
n1 sin a = n2 sin b
a =Angle of incidence b= Angle of refraction

n1 = Denser Medium RI n2 = Rarer Medium RI

 TYPES OF FIBER
FIBER

Multi Mode Single Mode

1.used for short distances 1.Suitable for longer transmission distances

2.suitable for LAN systems 2. Suitable for long distance telephony and
and Video surveillance multi channel television broadcast systems

Step- index
Step-index Graded- index
 Single Mode and Multimode Characteristics
Single Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber

Bandwidth High Lower

Signal Quality High Lower

Main Source of Chromatic dispersion Modal dispersion

Attenuation
Fiber Designs Step index, & Step index & Graded
Dispersion shifted index

Application Long transmission, Short transmission,

higher bandwidth lower bandwidth
 TYPES OF FIBER
• Fibers carry more than one mode at specific wavelength are
called Multimode fibers.
• Multimode fiber can be manufactured in two ways: step-index
or graded index.
• Step-index fiber has an abrupt change or step between the
index of refraction of the core and the index of refraction of the
cladding.
• Graded index fiber was designed to reduce modal dispersion
inherent instep index fiber. Graded index fiber is made up of
multiple layers with the highest index of refraction at the core.
Each succeeding layer has a gradually decreasing index of
refraction as the layers move away from the center.
• Fibers having very small diameter core that can carry only one
mode which travels as a straight line at the center of the core are
called Single mode fibers.
 OPTICAL FIBER INDEX PROFILE
Index profile is the refractive index distribution across core and
cladding of a fiber
Core 100micrometer Core 50micrometer Core 8.3micrometer
Cladding 140micrometer
Cladding 125micrometer cladding125micrometer

Graded- Step-index
Step-index SM fiber
index
MM fiber
MM fiber
Optic fiber index profile
 What is optical fibre's numerical aperture?
Optical fibre's capability to collect light is not only determined by fibre
core size, but also by its acceptance angle. Acceptance angle is the range
of angles over which a light ray can enter the fibre and be trapped in its
core.

The sine of the half-angle of the acceptance angle is known as the

numerical aperture – NA.
MM fiber propagate light that enters the fiber within the cone
Fiber with a high bandwidth have a lower NA. Thus they allow fewer
modes. Fewer modes means less dispersion and hence greater band width.
 Advantages of OFC
• More information carrying capacity 10 Gbps ( 2.5 Gbps STM-16 :
Railways)
• Free from EMI(electromagnetic interference) and Electrostatic
interference as no electric current flows through the fiber.
• Low loss. The higher frequency, the greater the signal loss using
copper cabling. With fiber, the signal loss is the same across
frequencies, 0.25 db/km at 1550 nm
• High bandwidth for voice, video and data applications
• As fiber is non conductor it does not not pick up or radiate
electromagnetic radiation hence no WPC is required
• Use of WDM(wavelength division multiplexing)
– Switching / routing at Optical signal level
• No Cross talk As the signal transmission is digital modulation no
chance of cross talk between channels
 Advantages of OFC
• Flexibility in system up gradation
• Reliability - Fiber is more reliable than copper
and has a longer life span
• Secure - Fiber does not emit electromagnetic
interference and is difficult to tap
• High resistance to chemical effects & temp
variations
• Small size
• Safety
• Light weight
 OPTIC FIBER LIMITATIONS

• Difficulty in splicing
• Highly skilled staff required
• Precision and costly instruments required
• Tapping is difficult
• Costly if under utilized
• Special interface equipment required for block
working
 OPTIC FIBER APPLICATIONS IN
RAILWAYS
• Long haul circuits for administrative branch and
data transmission circuits (PRS,FOIS etc.,)
• Short haul circuits for linking of telephone
exchanges
• Control communications
• Signaling application for failsafe transmission
 ELECTOMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 OPTICAL SPECTRUM
• 1) Ultra violet 50 nm to 400nm
• 2) Visible 400nm to 700nm
• 3)Infrared 700nm to 1mm
 Multi-mode step index Fiber

Core Dia 50-200 micro meter

Cladd Dia 125-140 micro meter
 Propagation through Multimode step-index fiber
• One mode travels straight down the center of the core
• Other modes travel at different steep angles and bounce
back and forth by total internal reflection.
• Different light waves travel down the fiber
 How to find number of modes
• V number or normalized cut-off frequency
V = (πd/λ)(n12-n22)1/2 where
d= dia of core, n1= RI of core and n2= RI of cladd, λ=
wavelength of source
• No. of modes in step-index fiber are N= V2/2
• for step grade and N= V2/4
Problems with Multi-mode Step-index fiber
• Different modes travel different distances , resulting
in different arrival times at the far end
• This causes distortion in the transmitted signal
• The disparity between arrival times of the different
light rays is known as dispersion
• High dispersion is an unavoidable characteristic of
multimode step-index fiber.
• Solutions are :
– Use Graded Index Fiber
– Use Single Mode Fiber
 Multimode grade-index fiber

Refractive index varies gradually from center of core to its periphery

Propagation through Multimode graded-index fiber

• The core’s refractive index is parabolic, being higher at the

center ( na> nb)
• The light rays follow a serpentine path being gradually bent
back toward the center by the continuously declining RI.
• The modes traveling in a straight line are in a higher refractive
index, so they travel slower than the serpentine modes
• Thus, the arrival time disparity is removed , as all modes arrive
at about the same time
 Single mode fiber
Core
Diameter: 5 to 10 μm

Cladding refractive Cladding

index < core Diameter: 125 μm
refractive index Coating
Diameter: 250 μm
 Single mode step-index fiber

Core dia 4 to 10 micro meter

Cladd dia 125 micro meter
Propagation through Single mode step-index fiber
• Single mode fiber has a much smaller core that allows only
one mode of light at a time to propagate through the core.
• Single-mode fiber exhibits no dispersion caused by multiple
modes
• Single-mode fiber also enjoys lower fiber attenuation than
multimode fiber
• Thus, more information can be transmitted per unit of time
because it can retain the fidelity of each light pulse over
longer distances
• DISADVANTAGE is coupling light into the core is difficult
and the tolerances for single mode connectors and splices are
also much more demanding.
Important Parameters of Single mode fiber
Parameter Description Typical value
Attenuation Loss of signal strength 0.35 db/km at 1310 nm
0.25 db/km at 1550 nm
Core diameter Diameter of core 8 to 10 micro meter
Cladding Diameter of cladding 125 micro meter
diameter
Core-cladding RI Ratio of RI of core to Less than 1%
ratio cladding
Cut-off Minimal wavelength at > 1260 nm
wavelength which fiber supports
only one wavelength

Numerical Ability of Optical Fiber 0.10 to 0.17

aperture to gather light from
source & guide it inside
through total internal
reflection
 Important Parameters
Single mode fiber (contd…)
Parameter Description Typical value
Mode field MM fiber carries all light energy 9.3 micro meters
diameter through core as core diameter is for core diameter
large. But, SM fiber carries 80% light of 8.3 micro
energy through core and 20% through meters
cladding as core diameter is small.
Mode field diameter (MFD) is the
effective diameter available for
propagation.
MFD is dependent on wavelength – it
reduces with wavelength. Shorter the
wavelength, more focused the beam
is and more stringent confinement of
beam to core , hence less MFD
When 2 fibers are connected, not only
core-cladding diameters to match but
also MFDs to match
Signal Attenuation in Optical fiber
• Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels
through the fiber and is measured in db/km
• It ranges from over 300 dB/km for plastic fibers to round
0.21 dB/km for single mode.
• Attenuation varies with wave length.
 Causes for Attenuation
1.Absorption of optical energy by tiny impurities in the fiber
such as iron, copper, or cobalt
2.The Scattering of the light beam as it hits microscopic
imperfections, called Rayleigh scattering
3.Micro bending, which is caused by a nick or dent in the
fiber that disrupts the mode
4.Macro bending occurs when the fiber is bent beyond its
minimum bend radius which is 30 times the dia of OFC
cable
 Macro-bending loss

• Macro-bending loss is caused by bending of the

entire fiber axis
• The bending radius shall not be sharper than ‘30d’
where d is diameter of cable
• One single bend sharper than 30d can cause loss
of 0.5 dB
• If bending is even sharper, fiber may break
 Micro-bending loss
• Micro-bending loss is caused by micro deformations of fiber
axis which leads to failures in achieving total internal reflection
conditions
• Micro-bends are small-scale perturbations along the fiber axis,
the amplitude of which are on the order of microns. These
distortions can cause light to leak out of a fiber.
• Micro-bending may be induced at very cold temperatures
because the glass has a different coefficient of thermal
expansion from the coating and cabling materials. At low
temperatures, the coating and cable become more rigid and may
contract more than the glass. Consequently, enough load may be
exerted on the glass to cause micro bends.
• Coating material is selected by manufacturers to minimize loss
due to micro-bending. The linear thermal expansion coefficient
of coating material shall be compatible with that of fiber
Factors causing absorption & Scattering
• Scattering of light due to molecular level irregularities in
the physical construction of fiber. The well known form is
Rayleigh Scattering. It is caused by metal ions in the silica
matrix. It limits the use of wavelengths below 800nm
shorter wavelengths more.
• Light absorption due to presence of ions (OH-) in silica,
impurities in silica, residual materials within the fiber core
and inner cladding.
• These water ions that cause the “water peak” region on the
attenuation curve, typically around 1380 nm.
 Attenuation vs.wavelength
850nm

1300/1310 1380nm
1550nm
Absorption loss & Scattering loss

Absorption Loss
Scattering Loss
 The three peaks & troughs

• Three peaks in attenuation

– 1050 nm
– 1250 nm
– 1380 nm
• Three troughs in attenuation
– 850 nm : 2 db/km
– 1310 nm : 0.35 db/km Performance windows
– 1550 nm : 0.25 db/km
•Window is ranges of wave lengths matched to the properties of the
optic fiber
 Dispersion phenomenon
• Dispersion is the time distortion of an optical signal
that results from the differences of time of travel for
different components of that signal, typically
resulting in pulse broadening
• As the distance traveled by the signal is more,
broadening of pulse is more
• In digital transmission, dispersion puts a limit on the
maximum data rate and the maximum distance i.e. the
information-carrying capacity of a fiber link.
 Types of dispersion

There are 2 types of dispersion :

- Inter-modal dispersion
- Chromatic dispersion
-dispersion is measured as picoseconds/nm -km
Types of dispersion
Dispersion, expressed in terms of the symbol Δt,
is defined as pulse spreading in an optical
fiber. As a pulse of light propagates through a
fiber, elements such as numerical aperture, core
diameter, refractive index profile, wavelength,
and laser line width cause the pulse to broaden.
This poses a limitation on the overall bandwidth
of the fiber as demonstrated in Figure 8-3.
Dispersion Δt can be determined from Equation 8-7.
Δt = (Δtout – Δtin)1/2 (8-7)
and is measured in time, typically nanoseconds or picoseconds.
Total dispersion is a function of
fiber length. The longer the fiber, the more the dispersion.
Equation 8-8 gives the total dispersion per unit length.
Δt total = L × (Dispersion/km) (8-8)
The overall effect of dispersion on the performance of a fiber optic
system is known as intersymbol interference (Figure 8-4).
Intersymbol interference occurs when the pulse spreading caused
by dispersion causes the output pulses of a system to overlap,
rendering them
 Model Dispersion in Multimode Fibers

Multimode fibers can guide many different light modes since

they have much larger core size. This is shown as the 1st
illustration in the picture above. Each mode enters the fiber at
a different angle and thus travels at different paths in the
fiber.
Since each mode ray travels a different distance as it
propagates, the ray arrive at different times at the fiber
output. So the light pulse spreads out in time which can cause
signal overlapping so seriously that you cannot distinguish
them any more.
Model dispersion is not a problem in single mode fibers since
there is only one mode that can travel in the fiber.
 Material Dispersion

Material dispersion is the result of the finite line width of the light source and the
dependence of refractive index of the material on wavelength. It is shown as the
2nd illustration in the first picture .
Material dispersion is a type of chromatic dispersion. Chromatic dispersion is
the pulse spreading that arises because the velocity of light through a fiber depends
on its wavelength.
The following picture shows the refractive index versus wavelength for a typical
fused silica glass.

Waveguide Dispersion
 Wave guide Dispersion
Wave guide dispersion is only important in single mode fibers. It is caused by the fact that
some light travels in the fiber cladding compared to most light travels in the fiber core. It is
shown as the 3rd illustration in the first picture.
Since fiber cladding has lower refractive index than fiber core, light ray that travels in the
cladding travels faster than that in the core. Wave guide dispersion is also a type of
chromatic dispersion. It is a function of fiber core size, V-number, wavelength and light
source line width.
While the difference in refractive indices of single mode fiber core and cladding are
minuscule, they can still become a factor over greater distances. It can also combine with
material dispersion to create a nightmare in single mode chromatic dispersion.
Various tweaks in the design of single mode fiber can be used to overcome wave guide
dispersion, and manufacturers are constantly refining their processes to reduce its effects.
 Dispersion in Single Mode Fiber
While the difference in refractive indices of single mode fiber core and
cladding are minuscule, they can still become a factor over greater distances.
It can also combine with material dispersion to create a nightmare in single
mode chromatic dispersion.

• No Modal dispersion
• Chromatic dispersion exists in Single mode fiber
 Chromatic dispersion vs. Wavelength in
Single Mode Fiber
• Fiber dispersion varies with wavelength it’s unit is
pS/nm-km
• The wavelength at which dispersion equals zero is
called the zero-dispersion wavelength (λ0).
• This is the wavelength at which fiber has its
maximum information-carrying capacity.
• For standard single-mode fibers, this is in the
region of 1310 nm.
Dispersion vs. Wavelength curve
 How about transmission at 1550 nm
• Optical fibers also can be manufactured to have low
dispersion wavelength in the 1550-nm region, which
is also the point where silica-based fibers have
inherently minimal attenuation.
• These fibers are referred to as dispersion-shifted
fibers and are used in long-distance applications with
high bit rates.
• For applications utilizing multiple wavelengths, it is
undesirable to have the zero dispersion point within
the operating wavelength range. DWDM
 Evolution of Single mode fiber
• Single-mode fiber has gone through a continuing
evolution.
• There are three basic classes of single-mode fiber
used in modern OFC Systems :
– Non dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF)
– Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF)
– Non zero-dispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF).
 Classes of Single mode fiber
• Non dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF) G.652 (ITU-T)
1. The initially deployed type used for 1310 nm.
2. This fiber has high dispersion at 1550 nm, hence not
suitable for 1550 nm systems
• Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF)G.653
1. To address the shortcoming of NDSF fiber, fiber
manufacturers developed, dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF)
2. This has moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550 nm
region
• Non zero-dispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF)G.655
1. Though DSF worked extremely well with a single 1550 nm
wavelength, it exhibits serious non linearity when multiple,
closely-spaced wavelengths in the 1550 nm were
transmitted in DWDM systems.
2. To address the problem of non linearity, non zero-
dispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF) were designed by
manufacturers.
 Application of MM and SM Fibers
• Multimode fiber is used primarily in systems
with short transmission distances (under 2 km),
such as premises communications, private data
networks, and parallel optic applications.
• Single-mode fiber is typically used for longer-
distance and higher-bandwidth applications .
• Its tremendous information-carrying capacity and
low intrinsic loss have made single-mode fiber the
ideal transmission medium for a multitude of
applications.
 Optical Fiber Sizes Available commercially

• To ensure compatibility among splices/connectors, sizes of

core & cladding have been standardized

• International standards for SM fiber

– Cladding diameter : 125 microns (micro meter)
– Cladding + coating : 245 microns (micro meter)
– Core diameter : 7 to 10 micro meter

• International standards for MM fibers

– Cladding diameter : 125 microns (micro meter)
– Cladding + coating : 245 microns (micro meter)
– Core diameter : 50 to 62.5 micro meter
Optical Fiber Sizes
 Types of Commercially available fiber
S Type ITU –T Description Indoor/ Application
N Rec. Outdoor

1 MM50 G.651 Multi Mode Fiber Outdoor Short-Reach Optical

with 50 micro m. Transmission for LAN
of Core dia in Offices and
Premises

2 MM62.5 G.651 Multi Mode Fiber Outdoor Short-Reach Optical

with 62.5 micro Transmission for LAN
m. of Core dia in Offices and
Premises

3 MM10G G.651 Multi Mode Fiber Outdoor 10Gigabit Ethernet

with 50 micro m. Optical Transmission
of Core dia for LAN in Offices and
Premises
 Types of commercially available Fibers
SN Type ITU –T Description Indoor/ Application
Rec. Outdoor
4 SM G.652B Single-Mode Outdoor Large-Capacity &
Fiber Low-Loss
Transmission in
1550nm Windows

5 LWP G.652D Low-Water-Peak Outdoor WDM Optical

Single-Mode Transmission for
Fiber Metropolitan
Networks
6 SR15 G.652B Bending- Indoor Optical cord and
Insensitive cable for FTTH /
Small LAN / Premises
Bending
Proof and
High
Reliability
Single-Mode
Fiber
Types of Commercially Available Fibers
S N Type ITU –T Description Indoor/ Application
Rec. Outdoor
7 SR15E G.652D Bending-Insensitive Outdoor Long-Distance Optical
Small Bending Transmission in
Proof and High 1550nm Windows
Reliability Low-
Water-Peak
Single-Mode
Fiber
8 DS G.653 Dispersion-Shifted Outdoor Long-Distance Optical
Single-Mode Transmission in
Fiber 1550nm Windows
9 LA G.655 Large-Effective- Outdoor Long-Distance
Area NZ-DSF DWDM Optical
Transmission in
the C-&L-Bands
 Types of commercially Types available
Fibers
SN Type ITU –T Description Indoor/ Application
Rec. Outdoor
10 SS G.656 Small- Outdoor Long-Distance
Dispersion- DWDM Optical
Slope NZ- Transmission
DSF in the C-&L-
Bands
11 ULA G.655 Ultra Large- Outdoor Long-Distance
Effective- DWDM Optical
Area NZ-DSF Transmission
Utilizing the S-,
C- & L-Bands
12 USS G.656 Ultra Small- Outdoor DWDM Optical
Dispersion- Transmission
Slope NZ- Utilizing the S-,
DSF C- & L-Bands
for Metro
Networks
Optical Fiber Cable Structure
Basic structure of Optical Fiber Cable
• Optical fiber cable consists of one or more protective
enclosures, each having one or more bare fibers and
the entirety packaged with a strength member in an
outer jacket.
• Basic elements in OF cable are :
– Bare fiber
– Buffer tube
– Strength member
– Outer jacket
 Bare fiber description
• Two different types of highly pure, solid glass, composed to
form the core and cladding.
• A protective Acrylate coating surrounds the cladding
– This is applied to the glass fiber as the final step in the
manufacturing process.
• This is color coded for identification of fiber
– This coating protects the glass from dust and scratches
– This protective coating comprises of two layers:
• A soft inner layer that cushions the fiber and allows
the coating to be stripped from the glass mechanically
• A hard outer layer that protects the fiber during
handling, particularly the cabling, installation, and
termination processes.
 Buffer tube description
• Buffer tube is the first shield protecting fiber from
damage
• It can have one fiber or more
• It can be tight buffer or loose buffer
• It is color coded for identification
 Features of loose buffer tube
• Buffer’s inner diameter is more than fiber’s outer diameter
• Protects fiber from mechanical forces.
• Force applied on buffer does not affect the fiber until the
force is large enough to straighten the fiber inside the
buffer
• Loose buffer tube can be filled with gel to prevent entry of
moisture
• Eliminates micro bending of fiber
• Loose buffer tube fiber cables are used out-door because
they effectively isolate the fibers from external stresses
such as changes in temperatures, preventing damages&
resulting in lower fiber loss.
 Features of tight buffer tube
• Tight buffer’s inner diameter is same as fiber’s outer
diameter
• It can keep the fiber operational despite break, as the fiber
is held in position firmly.
• Each buffer can hold one fiber only.
• Easy to prepare for and provide connectors / splicing
• Can be installed vertically
• Very strong tight buffer tube cables are used in military /
under-sea applications as small separation of fiber ends
due to break does not interrupt services completely.
 Features of strength member
• Runs along the center of the cable and provide
rigidity needed to keep it from buckling, as well as a
core to build the cable structure around.
• It may be over coated with plastic to prevent friction
with other parts of the cable.
• Flexible aramid yarn (Ex. Du pont Kevlar – widely
used) used as strength member
 Cable Sheath
• Surrounds the entire assembly of buffer tube or
tubes and strength member
• Purpose is to provide environmental protection to
fibers
• Made of High –Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
• Steel Armour is provided for armoured cables to
protect against crushing damage, rocks, and rodents.
 Jacketing
• Outermost sheath provides protection from
chemical acids, alkalis etc.,
• Material used is high density polyethylene
(HDPE) with anti termite
 24 fiber cable used in Indian Railways
RDSO spec no.IRS:TC55-2006,REV-1 WITH AMENDMENT 1.1
• 24F armoured cable
- Normally used for under ground laying
- It consists 6 loose tubes
Blue
Orange
Natural 1
Natural 2
Natural 3
Natural 4
- Each loose tube contains 4 fibers
Blue, Orange, Green, Natural
24F Armoured cable
Cross sectional view of OFC
Constructional diagram OFC
OPTICAL SOURCES AND
DETECTORS
 Optical Source
Main function
• Convert electrical energy into optical energy
Types
• Monochromatic incoherent ( LEDs)
• Monochromatic coherent (LDs)
 OPTICAL SOURCES

Light Emitting diodes Semiconductor Lasers

Spontaneous emission stimulated emission

• LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation
 stimulated emission
In optics, stimulated emission is the process by which an
atomic electron (or an excited molecular state)interacting
with an electromagnetic wave of a certain frequency, may
drop to a lower energy level transferring its energy to
that field. A photon created in this manner has the same
phase, frequency, polarization, and direction of travel as
the photons of the incident wave
 LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
A laser consists of a gain medium inside a highly reflective optical cavity, as well as a means to
supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to
amplify light by stimulated emission. In its simplest form, a cavity consists of two mirrors arranged
such that light bounces back and forth, each time passing through the gain medium. Typically one of
the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through
this mirror.
Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified(increases in
power); the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of the light makes many passes through the gain
medium, being amplified repeatedly. Part of the light that is between the mirrors (that is, within the
cavity) passes through the partially transparent mirror and escapes as a beam of light.
The process of supplying the energy required for the amplification is called pumping. The energy is
typically supplied as an electrical current or as light at a different wavelength. Such light may be
provided by a flashlamp or perhaps another laser. Most practical lasers conin additional elements
that affect properties such as the wavelength of the emitted light and the shape of the beam.

1. Gain medium
2. Laser pumping
energy
3.High reflector
4.Output Coupler
5. Laser beam
 Spontaneous emission

Spontaneous emission is the process by which a light source such as an atom, molecule,
nano crystal or nucleus in an excited state undergoes a transition to a state with a lower
energy, e.g., the ground and emits a photon.
 Optical Source Requirements
• Directivity Size and configuration compatible with
launching light into the fiber and light should be highly
directional
• Output Power: should be as high as possible
• Linearity Should be linear (accurately track the
electrical input signal ,minimize the distortion & noise)
• Wavelength Emit light at wavelengths where fiber has
low losses, dispersion and where detectors are efficient
• direct modulation Capable of simple signal
modulation ranging from audio frequencies to GHz
range
• Coupling Efficiency Should couple sufficient optical
power to overcome attenuation in the fiber
Optical Source Requirements
• Spectral bandwidth: Should have narrow spectral
bandwidth (line width) in order to minimize dispersion
• Stable optical output: Must be capable of maintaining
stable optical output (that does not change with ambient
conditions)
• Should be Economical comparatively cheap and
highly reliable in order to compete with conventional
transmission techniques
 Features of stimulated emission (by LDs)
• External stimulation , hence narrow spectral width
– External photon forces photon of similar energy to be
emitted. This is reflected back to active region to continue
the process; Spectral width is narrow ( 1 nm )
• High output power
– All photons propagate in same direction , hence contribute to
high output power (LD requires 10 mA current to radiate 1
mW whereas LED requires 150 mA)
• Better directivity
– Stimulated photons propagate in same direction, hence better
directivity
• Coherence
– All photons are synchronized, hence coherent radiation
 Features of spontaneous emission (by LEDs)
• Wide spectral width
– The transition of electrons from many energy levels of
conduction band and valence bands contributes to the
radiation. Spectral width is naturally high (170 nm at 1310
nm)
• Low intensity
– The photons are radiated in arbitrary directions, very few of
them create light in desired direction i.e. LEDs have poor
current-to-light conversion
• Poor directivity
– Even the photons which contribute to light do not move in
one direction; they propagate in a cone (Lambertian source)
• Incoherence
– The photons are incoherent i.e. they get created without any
phase relation
 Semiconductor material used in
Optical Sources
• Gallium-Aluminum-Arsenic 800-900nm
• Indium-Gallium-Arsenic- Phosphide 1000nm-1600nm
 Optical sources
• LED source
• Produces incoherent light
• Spontaneous emission
• High spectral with 30-60nm
• Lesslaunchingpower100uwatt
• Poor coupling efficiency 1%
• Used only for MM
• LAN application
• LASER Source
• Produces coherent light
• Stimulated emission
• Narrow spectral width 1 to
3nm(reduces dispersion)
• High output power100mW
• High coupling efficiency 50%
• Used only for SM
• Can be modulated directly
with high frequency due to
short recombination time
 Laser safety
• Visible and Infrared light can damage eye
permanently.
• While handling laser source
• Never look into a live laser source
• Never look into an unknown light source
• Never look into any fiber until it is
ascertained it is safe
 Laser specifications
1) Wavelength 1310nm or 1550nm
2) Rise and fall time 0.3 nS
3) Threshold current 50mA normal
operating value 70mA
4) Spectral Width 1-3 nm
5) Operating temp. -10 C to +65 C
6) Output power hundreds of milli
watts
 Important terms used
• Threshold current and its significance
Threshold current is the current at which the
laser operates, normal range is 50-70mA &
should be minimum to maintain junction
temperature low to have reliable output and
low noise
Normal operating rage
Output
power

0
current
Threshold current
 Important terms used
•Spectral width is the band width of emitted
light.

Power output

Laser response

LED response

Spectral Wavelength
width 1-3nm
30-60nm
 Important terms used
Rise and Fall Time is a measure of how quickly the
laser can be switched on or off measured between the output
levels of 10-90% of maximum

100%
90%

Power output

10%
0
Rise
Fall time
time
time
 Efficiency of Optical Sources
• It is two types
• Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) :It is the ratio of no. of
photons generated and no. of carriers crossing the junction
depending upon type of impurity and structure of the
junction
• External Quantum Efficiency (EQE):It is ratio of no. of
photons finally emitted and no.of carriers crossing the
junction
• EQE is always less than IQE because
• Light emitted in the direction of semiconductor- air
surface is only useful
• Light gets reflected at the semiconductor -air surface
• There is absorption between the point of generation and
emitting surface
 Optical Detectors
• Converts the light into electricity through
photoelectric effect
The requirements of optical detectors are
• 1.High sensitivity
• 2.Fast response
• 3.low noise
• 4.high reliability
• 5. low cost
 Principle of photo detection
A photo detector is a device which absorbs light and
converts the optical energy to measurable electric current.
 Principle of photo detection
-Ve -ve

P-region
P-region
Detector in dark Depletion region
Depletion region No current
N-region N-region

+Ve +Ve

Material doped
Light falls Current flows
Indiam-gallium-Arsenic-Photophide
 Types of Photo detectors

P-I-N diode
Avalanche photodiode

P-I-N diode is a photodiode with intrinsic(un doped) region between n-

and p- doped regions.Most of the photons are absorbed in the intrinsic
region, and carriers are generated and contributes to the photocurrent.
Avalanche photodiode is a semiconductor –based photodiode which is
operated with relatively high reverse voltage typically tens or even
hundreds of volts some times just below breakdown. In this system,
carriers excited by absorbed photons are strongly accelerated in the
strong internal electric field , so that they can generate secondary carriers
as it occurs in photo multipliers.The avalanche process effectively
amplifies the photocurrent significantly.
Important characteristic of optical detector
• Responsitivity® the ratio of electrical output from detector to the
input optical power. It is measured in ampere/watt (A/W).e.g. 0.6A/W
means that incident light having 50uW of power results in 30uA of
current
Id= 50uW X 0.6 A/W = 30 uW
• Quantum efficiency(n) which indicates how well incident optical
photons are absorbed and then used to generate primary charge
carriers;, (is ratio of no.of electron-hole pairs generated to no.of
incident of photons on the surface of the photo detector.) A typical
quantum efficiency of 70% means 7 out of every 10 photons create
carriers (electron current). It should be as high as possible.
• Dark Current(I) is the current flowing through the photodiode
without light input. It develops from stray light or from thermally
generated electron-hole pairs. For a good photo detector it should be
less than10nA.
 Important characteristic of optical detector
• Speed of the detector response
Because optical detectors often are used for detection of fast pulses,
another important term, called rise time, is often used to describe
the speed of the detector response
Rise and Fall Time
. Rise time is defined as the time difference between the point at
which the detector has reached 10% of its peak output current and
the point at which it has reached 90% of its peak response, when it
is irradiated by a very short pulse of light.

The fall time is defined as the time between the 90% point and
the10% point on the trailing edge of the pulse waveform. This is
also called the decay time.
• Wave length
Depends on the semiconductor material by which it is made
 Typical characteristics of InGaAs p-i-n &
APDs
Characteristic p-i-n PD APD
Responsivity (A/W) 0.5 – 0.95 5 – 20
Quantum efficiency% 60-70 --
APD gain -- 10-40
Dark current (nA) 1-20 1-5
Bandwidth (GHz) 1 to 10 1-10
Bias voltage 5-6V 20-30 V
 Optical transmitter

optical Modulated
signal signal
PD Laser Diode External modulator

feedback

Laser Driver circuits Interface Electronics

information
LED transmitter
Electrical optical signal
signal
 Block diagram of optical receiver
Electric signal Amplified electric signal

Optical signal I/p Electrical output

Optical detector Amplifier O/P signal processing

Control circuits
 Optical Amplifier
•Optical transmission distance of a fibre-optic
communication system has traditionally been limited by fibre
attenuation and by fibre distortion.
• By using opto-electronic repeaters, these problems have
been eliminated. These repeaters convert the signal into an
electrical signal, and then use a transmitter to send the signal
again at a higher intensity than it was before. Because of the
high complexity with modern wavelength-division
multiplexed signals (including the fact that they had to be
installed about once every 20 km), the cost of these repeaters
is very high.
•An alternative approach is to use an Optical Amplifier ,
which amplifies the optical signal directly without having to
convert the signal into the electrical domain. It is made by
doping a length of fibre with the rare-earth mineral erbium,
that when excited ,emits light around 1.54 micro meters the
low loss wave length required for OFC transmission.
 Erbium doped fiber Amplifier
optical amplifier

10 m Erbium Doped Fiber

 Important Parameters:
980 nm Pump
~  Gain
Signal
980nm or 1480nm
Amplified Signal
 Saturation Output Power
 Noise Figure

Supports 1530 to 1570 nm

 Erbium doped fiber Amplifier
•A piece of fiber heavily doped with ions of Erbium acts as
active device. To this Erbium doped fiber, information signal
(1550 nm) and laser pump signal (980 nm or 1480 nm) are
coupled by a coupler.
•The information signal is amplified ,while the pumping
signal loses it’s power (gives to information signal)
•Second coupler removes residual pumping light & noise ,
else they may turn out as laser
•Isolator is used to stop back-reflected light
•Gain of EDFA – About 30 dB
•The spontaneous emission s in the EDFA also add noise to
the signal.
•Signals can travel up to 120 KM between amplifiers but
require regeneration if more distance to travel
 Optical Amplifiers Vs. Regenerators
Optical Amplifiers Regenerators
Independent of bit rate & Specific to bit rate &
modulation modulation format
System up-gradation does System up-gradation
not require replacement of requires replacement of
amplifiers regenerators
Have large Gain-BW, hence Each wavelength of WDM
can simultaneously amplify requires separate
several WDM signals regenerator
Do not cause jitter Source of jitter
Introduce noise Eliminate noise at every
stage of regeneration
 Optical switches
An optical switch is a switch that enables signals in optical fibers or
Integrated optical circuits (IOCs) to be selectively switched from one circuit
to another.
An optical switch may operate by mechanical means, such as physically shifting
an optical fibre to drive one or more alternative fibers, or by electro-optic,
magneto-optic effect,or other methods.
Slow optical switches, such as those using moving fibers, may be used for
alternate routing of an optical transmission path, such as routing around
a fault.
Fast optical switches, such as those using electro-optic or
magneto-optic effects, may be used to perform logic operation
 Couplers
Couplers: Couplers are the devices that combine different optical
signals on different paths into a single fiber optical signal on a single
fiber. Each of these different optical signal has different wavelengths of
light.Each wavelength carries a different data streams.Use of couplers
increases capacity of fiber. The can be used to transmit full-duplex signal
over a single fiber
 Couplers
T Coupler
input
output

out
Tree coupler
Multiple
outputs
One input

Star Couplers
Multiple
outputs
Multiple inputs
or
 Attenuators

Used for reducing the

amplitude of optical signal
without appreciably
distorting the waveform
Zero dB couplers & 10 dB attenuators
 OPTICAL SPLITTER
Splitters: Splitters devices that a single optical signal into multiple
optical signals. Splitters can be used to increase system reliability and
to reduce system cost
 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

Presented By The Fiber Optic Association

©2004, The Fiber Optic Association, Inc.

How Does Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) Work?

It is easy to understand WDM. Consider the fact that you can see many different colors of light
- red, green, yellow, blue, etc., all at once. The colors are transmitted through the air together
and may mix, but they can be easily separated using a simple device like a prism, just like we
separate the "white" light from the sun into a spectrum of colors with the prism.
The input end of a WDM system is really quite simple. It is a simple coupler that combines or
multiplexes all the signal inputs into one output fiber. The de multiplexer separates the light at
the end of the fiber. It shines the light on a grating (a mirror like device that works like a prism
and looks similar to the data side of a CD) which separates the light into the different
wavelengths by sending them off at different angles. Optics capture each wavelength and
focuses it into another fiber, creating separate outputs for each wavelength of light.
Current systems offer from 4 to 32 channels of wavelengths. The higher numbers of
wavelengths has lead to the name “Dense” Wavelength Division Multiplexing or DWDM.
Basic Principle of Wave Length
Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Cable laying practices
 Drum Testing

• Before laying every cable drum to be tested

- Normally drum length is about 3 km
- Drum No. , length of the cable,
Running meters to be noted
- All fibers to be tested with OTDR and
Traces to be stored
- If any event/break observed, avoid
laying
 Site Survey and Estimation
• Site survey to be done properly
• Initial/First survey by train with Engg. drawing
• Verify culverts, bridges and LC gates
• Observe nature of land i.e sand, black cotton soil, red soil,
morrum and rocky
• Prepare a chart with schedule items for rough estimation
• Second survey by trolley along with concerned PWI, S&T
staff -max. one block section per day
• Take alignment along the Rly boundary
• Note the off sets existing cables
• Enter the protection works required i.e GI Pipe, RCC Pipe…
 Final survey
• Third survey by foot with sufficient labors
• Do the test pit for every 200 m and note down the
nature of soil
• Compile the Estimation for one block section with
10-15% extra quantities.
• Prepare the proposed cable route drawing
• Ensure the station yard, location boxes, signal
posts, culverts and LC gates in the drawing
• Submit drawings for Engg. dept approval
 Cable laying practices

• Hand over the approved drawings to the

contractor and take acknowledgement
• Ask them to visit the site along with drawings
for their convenient
• Ensure the material on hand before starting
trenching work
• Show the cable plane and ask them to start
work in one block section
 Laying HDPE Duct
• Permit trenching for 1km length and ask them to
lay the HDPE duct immediately
• Unwind the duct by keeping it on Duct wheel.
• Complete the duct laying for one block section
• Do the Duct Integrity Test (DIT) for one block
section and cable blowing to be started
• Keep the drum at the middle of 3km trench on
jacks
• Cable to be blown through ducts using cable
blowing machine in one direction
 Duct Laying
Ducts will be laid in a flat bottom trench, free from
stones, and sharp edged debris. The duct would be
placed in trench as straight as possible, however at
bends horizontal and vertical minimum bending
radius for duct would be maintained as per advised
specifications.
Ducts will be laid preferably using dispenser
designed for it. Our supervisor will ensure that Duct
laid is free from twist and collapsed portion of Ducts.
Any such portion will be rectified before backfilling by
using couplers.
Ends of ducts will always be closed with END
PLUGS to avoid ingress of mud, water or dust.
We ensure HDPE ducts are clear of sand, dust
or any other particles, which would cause
obstruction in lying of cable. Prior to aligning the
ducts for jointing, each length of the HDPE ducts
will be thoroughly cleaned to remove all sand,
dust or any other debris that may clog, disturb or
damage the optical fiber cable when it is pulled
or blown at a later stage.
.
The ducts will be joined with couplers using duct
cutter & other tools and will be tightened and
secured properly. The duct joint will be
practically airtight to ensure smooth cable
blowing using cable blowing machines.
Laying of Gl and / or RCC pipes as additional
protection for the HDPE ducts at rail / road
crossings, built-up area/city limits, on culverts
and bridges will be done as required.
Chambering or concreting around RCC/ Gl
pipes as additional protection on bridges,
culverts and also on stretches wherever depth
of excavation is less than specified will be
done.
Reinstatement of excavated trench will be done
with proper compaction
 Duct Integrity Test
After backfilling ducts shall be tested for integrity
(air tightness and kink-free shape). Air tightness
test is done by pressurizing 2 km duct stretches at a
time. One end of duct will be closed and
compressed air at 5-6kg/cm2 is sent
from the other end. At about 5kg/cm2 pressure the
inlet of compressed air will be closed. Fall in
pressure should not be more than 50% in 1(one)
hour.
The Sole purpose of Duct integration testing is
to prove that the installed ducts or pipes are
ready for blowing of the product and that the
ducts are through without any hindrance from
One Manhole to other.
The duct integration test is carried out with the
help of Compressed air and a suitable go-
gauge mandrel of appropriate size, which is
thrusted inside with pneumatic pressure and is
thrown outside from the other end.
If the mandrel passes out smoothly the duct is
considered ready for cable blowing. To check
that duct has not collapsed or kinked a wooden
cylindrical piece (shuttle) is blown into the duct
with far end fitted with Flexible wire grip/stocking.
The wooden shuttle should pass through duct at
far end with out any obstruction and within
approx. 10 minutes or less.
Duct integration testing APPARATUS
 Laying OFC
• Un wind the balance cable from the drum and put
the ‘8’ coil
• Blow the balance cable on the other side
• Place the loop chamber for every 1km or 1.5 km
• Complete the blowing in one block section
• Test the cable after blowing and splicing to be
done in the joint enclosure.
• Drum wise and section wise OTDR traces to be
stored.
 As made drawings

• As-made drawings to be prepared with proper off

sets of cable trench, Joint chambers, loop
chambers
• After verification of As Build Drawings and do
correction if any
• H/O the As Build drawings to S&T, Electrical and
Engg. depts with acknowledgement.
• Store the sufficient number of soft and hard copies
for further use
 Trenches for OFC cable
• Trenches for telecom cable shall be dug to a depth of 1.65
meters
• Width of 300mm (or as per requirement adequate to
accommodate cables and their protections)
• Mettled, mechanized concrete and stone paved roads shall
also be cut to a depth of 1.65 meters. The cable shall be
laid through RCC pipe.
• All cable crossing across railway tracks shall be done in
horizontal boring method through G.I.pipes
• All cable crossing across road crossing shall be done in
horizontal boring method through G.I.pipes
 Protections for OFC
• The optic fiber cable is required to be laid through
HDPE pipe in GI pipes over steel girder bridges.
The GI pipes should be fitted on the girder bridges
with suitable clamp/U bolt without drilling holes
in the girder
• Where ever the water flow is less the cable shall
be laid under the bed of the culvert at a depth of
1.65 meters or through RCC/DWC pipes.
• In case of wet culverts or unfriendly terrains
where it is not possible to lay cable under the bed
of culverts, the cable may be laid over the culvert
in G.I.pipes.
• In rocky soil HDPE duct pipe shall be laid and
concreted up to ground level
 Protections for OFC
• While laying near feeding post ,as far as possible
the cable shall be laid on the side of track opposite
to the feeding post. Further the optic fiber cable
shall be at least one meter away from any metallic
part of the O.H.E. The cable shall be laid in
RCC/DWC pipes (standard 2 meter length) for a
length of 300 meters on the either side of the
feeding point
 Loop chambers for Optic Fiber Cable
• OFC spare coil has to be kept at various locations
i.e., loop chambers and joint chambers.
 LOOP CHAMBERS
• 1) LC gates: One chamber will be provided at all
LC gates at least 10 meters away from the center
point of the road, a coil of 15 meters will be kept
as spare in this chamber
• 2) Bridges: For all bridges of length less than 25
meters, one chamber will be provided at a distance
of 10 meters from the edge and two chambers will
be provided for all bridges of length of more than
25 meters. A coil of 15 meters will be kept as
spare in each chamber.
 Loop chambers for Optic Fiber Cable
• 3)Prefab: All prefab will be provided with one
chamber with a coil of 15 meters
• 4)At every one kilometer: One loop chamber will
be provided with coil of 20 meters
• 5) Track crossing: One loop chamber with 15
meters(2.5 meters) coil to be provided at every
track crossing
• It should be ensured that there will be at least 1
KM distance between loop chambers. If there is an
LC gate or a bridge or a track crossing or prefab
and then the next loop chamber will be at one km
 JOINT CHAMBERS OF Cable
• At every 3 km, one joint chamber will be provided
by providing a coil of 20 meters for each side of
the cable.
• Stations: Every station will be provided with one
number joint chamber where ’T’ joint is made.
Only those fibers which are required to be derived
only are to be spliced with derivation cable with
”T” joint without disturbing the other fibers. For
through cable 15 meters to be left as coil and for
derivation cable 15 meters to be left as a coil in
the chamber
 Route markers

-Shall be provided at the distance of every 50

meters on the cable route
-Also at places or corners wherever the route of
cable changes
-The joint indicators shall be provided at all types
of cable joints
 Testing of Fibers

• All terminated fibers to be tested with OTDR and

traces to be stored
• Power measurements to be done in every fiber
with laser source meter and power meter
• Average loss to be
< 0.25 d/km at 1550 nm and
< 0.40 dB/km at 1310 nm
 Telecom manual
The cable length shall be worked out on the following basis :
(a) Route length as per actual measurement plus contour allowance of 2.5%.
(b) Extra length for track crossing including 2.5 meters loop on each side.
(c) 10 meters extra length on approach/crossing of the bridges and
culverts on each side as per measurement in the detailed survey.
(d) 5 meters of cable to be kept on either side of major steel bridges and
2.5 meters of cable on short bridges.
(e) At every joint a loop of 10 meters on either side shall be kept.
(f) In cable huts a loop of 10 meters in the cable pit shall be kept
Special lengths for long girder bridges.
For long girder bridges, special length of cable may be required. This is to
avoid the location of a joint on such bridges, on slopes leading to bridge
abutments and on top of deep cuttings, etc. These details regarding the
approaches to the bridges shall be worked out.
SPLICING
 What is splicing
• Splicing is permanent connection of two pieces of
fiber
• Two types of splices :
– 1)Mid-span splicing of two fibers
• Fibers from two cables are spliced after laying
drum by drum
• Cuts in fiber run are attended by splicing certain
minimum length cable piece at either end
2)Pig-tail splicing
• Pig-tail is a fiber cable with factory installed connector
at one end and the free fiber of pig-tail is spliced
connected to cable
• Two techniques of splicing
– Mechanical splicing
– Fusion splicing
 Mechanical Splicing

• Mechanical splicing is of slightly higher losses (about

0.2 db) and less-reliable performance
• System operators use mechanical splicing for emergency
restoration because it is fast, inexpensive, and easy.
• Mechanical splices are reflective and non-homogenous

fiber fiber

Alignment sleeve
 Fusion Splicing

• Fusion splicing provides a fast, reliable, low-loss, fiber-to-

fiber connection by creating a homogenous joint between the
two fiber ends.
• The fibers are melted or fused together by heating the fiber
ends, typically using an electric arc.
• Fusion splices provide a high-quality joint with the lowest loss
(in the range of 0.01 dB to 0.10 dB for single-mode fibers) and
are practically non-reflective.

fiber fiber

Electric arc
 STRAIGHT JOINT FOR OPTIC FIBRE CABLE
Generally, the following steps are involved for jointing of
the cable :
- Preparation of cable for jointing
- Stripping/cutting the cable
- Preparation of cable and joint closure for splicing
- Stripping and cleaving of fibres
- Organising fibres and finishing joints
- Sealing of joint closure and
- Placing joint in pit
ARC Fusion Splicing Machine –
Fujikura 50S
CONNECTORS
 Basics about connectors
• Fiber optic connector facilitates re-mate able connection i.e.
disconnection / reconnection of fiber
• Connectors are used in applications where
– Flexibility is required in routing an optical signal from
lasers to receivers
– Termination of cables is required
• Connector consists of 4 parts :
– Ferrule
– Connector body
– Cable
– Coupling device
 Characteristics of connectors
Parameter Description
Insertion loss 1. Loss due to use of connector
(unavoidable)
2. Manufacturers specify typical value
Repeatability Difference between successive
(loss) measurement of the same connector. Shall
be 0.1 to 0.3 db
Suitability Suitable to SM / MM fiber
Return loss The amount of power reflected from the
connector to connector interface. Return
loss values are expressed as dB. A typical
specification could range from -15 to -60
dB, where, in most cases, -60 is more
desirable.
 FC - Ferrule Connector

Insertion Repeatability Fiber type Application

loss
0.5 to 1.0 db 0.20 db SM / MM Transmission
NW

Gradually being replaced with SC and LC CONNECTORS

 SC - Subscriber Connector or
Standard Connector

Insertion loss Repeatability Fiber type Application

0.2 to 0.45 db 0.10 db SM / MM Transmission

NW
 SC Duplex Connector

Insertion loss Repeatability Fiber type Application

0.2 to 0.45 db 0.10 db SM / MM Transmission
NW
 ST - Straight Tip connector

Insertion loss Repeatability Fiber type Application

0.40 db (SM) 0.40 db (SM) SM / MM Inter/Intra

0.50 db (MM) 0.20 db (MM) Building

Popular connector for multimode fiber optic LAN

applications
 FDDI - Fibre Distributed Data
Interface

Insertion Repeatability Fiber type Application

loss
0.2 to 0.7 db 0.20 db SM / MM FDDI LAN
(Fiber
distributed data
interface)
 LC - Lucent Connector or a Local
Connector

Insertion loss Repeatability Fiber type Application

0.15 db (SM) 0.20 db SM / MM High density
0.10 db interconnection
(MM)
 MT-ARRAY CONNECTOR.

Insertion Repeatability Fiber type Application

loss
0.3 to 1.0 db 0.25 db SM / MM Ribbon fiber
cables
MT-RJ - Mechanical Transfer
Registered Jack.

Used in building communication

system Used for multimode only
Fiber Distribution Management
System (FDMS)
FDMS with SC couplers
FDMS with E2000 couplers
E2000 pigtails
SC-E2000 Patch cord
LC-FC Patch cord
SC-FC patch cord
TEST AND MEASUREMENTS
 Power Meters
• THE POWER METER BY ITSELF,CANBE
USED TO MEASURE SOURCEPOWER
• WITH A SOURCE, IT CAN MEASURE THE
LOSS OF A CABLE PLANT CALLED
INSERTION LOSS
• MOST POWER MEASUREMENTS ARE
IN THE RANGE + 10 DBM TO - 40
DBM
– ANALOG CATV (CABLE TV) OR DWDM
(DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING) SYSTEMS CAN HAVE
POWER UP TO +30 DBM (1 WATT)
 Optical power levels
NETWORK TYPE WAVELENGTH POWER RANGE (DBM)

TELECOM 1310, 1550 nm +3 TO -45

TELECOM DWDM 1550 nm +20 TO -30

CATV 1300, 1550 nm +10 TO -6

DETECTORS ARE SILICON, GERMANIUM, OR

INDIUM-GALLIUM-ARSENIDE SEMICONDUCTORS
 Insertion loss

• The insertion loss technique is a non destructive method

to measure the attenuation across a fibre, a passive
component or an optical link. With the substitution method,
the output from a source and a reference fibre is measured
directly, then a measurement is realized with the fibre to be
measured added to the system. The difference between the
two results gives the attenuation of the fibre.
The purpose of the first or "reference" measurement is to
cancel out as far as possible the losses caused by the
various patch cables.
 Double-ended loss test

USES BOTH A LAUNCH AND RECEIVE

CABLE
 cut back measurements
The cut back technique is the most accurate measurement,
but is also destructive, and cannot be applied in the field.
This is the reason why it is not used during installation
and maintenance. Testing with the cutback method
requires first measuring attenuation of the length of fibre
under test, then cutting back a part of the length from the
source end, and measuring attenuation of this part as a
reference, and then subtracting the two values: the result
gives the attenuation of the cut fibre
 Optical Fiber Testing
MEASURE ATTENUATION WITH CUTBACK METHOD

CUT OFFKNOWN LENGTH,AND THEN

MEASURE POWER INCREASE
 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
•The Optical Time Domain Reflect meter
(OTDR) is useful for testing the integrity of fibre
optic cables.
•The aim of this instrument is to detect, locate and
measure events at any location in the fibre link.
•One of the main benefits of the OTDR is that it can
fully test a fibre from only one end.
•OTDR s are most effective when testing long
cables (more than approximately 250 meters or
800 feet) or cable plants with splices.
 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
•The OTDR technique produces geographic information with regard to
localized loss and reflective events there by providing a pictorial and
permanent record which may be used

•The OTDR is also commonly used to create a "picture" of

fiber optic cable when it is newly installed. Later, comparisons
can be made between the original trace and a second trace
taken if problems arise. Analysing the OTDR trace is always
made easier by having documentation from the original trace
that was created when the cable was installed
•OTDR simply shows you where the cables are terminated and
confirm the quality of the fibers, connections and splices.
•
 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
•OTDR traces are also used for troubleshooting,
since they can show where breaks are in fiber
when traces are compared to installation
documentation.
Measurements by OTDR
•LOCATES BREAKS, SPLICES, AND CONNECTORS
•MEASURES LOSS between two points
•MEASURES Transmission loss
•MEASURES Splice loss
•MEASURES Connector loss
•Gives length of the fiber cable
 Advantages of OTDR

• PRODUCES GRAPHIC DISPLAY OF FIBER

STATUS
• DATA CAN BE STORED FOR
DOCUMENTATION AND FOR LATER
REFERENCE
• CABLE CAN BE MEASURED FROM ONE
END
 Fiber Phenomena
The OTDR’s ability to characterize a fibre is based on
detecting small signals returned back to the OTDR in
response to injection of a large signal, much like a
"radar". In this regard, the OTDR depends on two
types of Reflections.
They are: Rayleigh Backscattering and Fresnel
Reflections.
difference between these two phenomena is as
follows:
Rayleigh scattering is intrinsic to the fibre
material itself and is present along the entire
length of the fibre. If Rayleigh scattering is
uniform along the length of the fibre, then
discontinuities in the Rayleigh backscatter can
be used to identify anomalies in transmission
only.
• Fresnel reflections are "point" events and
occur only where the fibre comes in contact
with air or another media such as at a
mechanical connection/splice or joint.
 Rayleigh scattering
When a pulse of light is sent down a fibre, some of the
photons of light are scattered. This effect, referred to as
Rayleigh scattering, provides amplitude and temporal
information along the length of cable.
Some of the light is scattered back in the opposite
direction of the pulse and is called the backscattered
signal.
Rayleigh scattering
 Fresnel reflection
Fresnel reflection is due to the light reflecting off a
boundary of two optical Tran missive materials, each
having different index of refraction. This boundary can
occur either at a joint (connector or mechanical splice),
at an non-terminated fibre end, or at a break.
The magnitude of the Fresnel reflection is dependent
upon the incident power and the relative difference
between the two indices of refraction.
The amount of light reflected depends upon the
boundary surface smoothness and the index difference
 Fresnel reflection

Reflected light from a boundary between a fiber and air has a

theoretical value of -14 dB. This value can be over 4000
times more powerful than the level of the backscatter. This
means that the OTDR detector must be able to process signals
which can vary in power enormously. Connectors using gel
can reduce the Fresnel reflection. The gel acts as an index
matching material minimizing the glass/air index difference
 DEAD ZONE
Why do we have dead zone ?
• The OTDR is designed to detect the backscattering level all
along the fiber link. It measures backscattered signals which
are much smaller than the signal sent to the fiber. The
component which receive those values is the photodiode. It is
designed to receive a given level range. When there is a
strong reflection, then the power received by the photodiode
can be more than 4000 times higher than the backscattered
power and can saturate the photodiode.
• The photodiode requires time to recover from the saturated
condition; during this time, it will not detect the backscatter
signal accurately.
• The length of fiber which is not fully characterized during the
recovery period is termed the Dead Zone.
 DEAD ZONE
•They are of two types. 1)Launch dead zone and 2)
Event dead zone
•NOTHING CAN BE MEASURED FOR THE
FIRST 100 METERS OR SO
•The solution for dead zone add a patch cord of
length 100 meters at beginning of the system
Event dead zone
Event dead zone is the minimum distance on the
trace, where two separate events can still be
distinguished. The distance to each event can be
measured, but the separate loss of each events
cannot be measured.
 Measurement of Fiber Length
Assume refractive index of core is 1.5
8 8

So, speed of light in core = 3 X 10 m/s /1.5 = 2 X 10 m/s

If the OTDR measures a time delay of 1.4 uS
Then distance = 2 00000KM/S X 1.4 uS = 280 meters
Therefore, the total distance travelled by the light is 280 M
The length of fiber is 140 meters
 Range discrimination
Range discrimination is the minimum distance
separating two events that can be displayed as separate
events
•Two events too close together cannot be resolved,
especially with long pulses hence proper pulse width
has to be selected
•Use the shortest pulse that will provide the required
range
•Pulse length determines the range discrimination
 Important terms
• Averaging is the process by which each
acquisition point is sampled repeatedly and the
results averaged to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio.
• Averaging will improve the signal to noise ratio
by increasing the number of acquisitions
• Dynamic range. This is the difference
between the highest value of input that can
be given to the detector and the minimum
detectable power.
 Important terms
Ghosts (false reflections) Ghosts are repetitions of a trace or
portion of a trace. They are caused by a large reflection in a
short fibre, causing light to bounce back and forth. If you are
testing short cables with highly reflective connectors, you will
likely encounter "ghosts". These are caused by the reflected
light from the far end connector reflecting back and forth in the
fibre until it is attenuated to the noise level. Ghosts are very
confusing, as they seem to be real reflective events like
connectors, but will not show any loss. If you find a reflective
event in the trace at a point where there is not supposed to be
any connection, but the connection from the launch cable to the
cable under test is highly reflective, look for ghosts at multiples
of the length of the launch cable or the first cable you test.
 GHOST ECHOES

SECONDARY REFLECTION APPEARS AT DOUBLE THE REAL

CABLE LENGTH
USING INDEX-MATCHING GEL WILL ELIMINATE GHOSTS
Information in the OTDR Trace
 Information in the OTDR Trace
The slope of the fiber trace shows the attenuation
coefficient of the fiber and is calibrated in dB/km by
the OTDR.
Connectors and splices are called "events" in OTDR
jargon. Both should show a loss, but connectors and
mechanical splices will also show a reflective peak.
The height of that peak will indicate the amount of
reflection at the event
Sometimes, the loss of a good fusion splice will be
too small to be seen by the OTDR. That's good for
the system but can be confusing to the operator. It is
very important to know the lengths of all fibres in the
network, so you know where to look for events and
won't get confused when unusual events show up
 Pulse width
The OTDR pulse width duration controls the
amount of light that will be injected into the
fiber. The longer the pulse width means the
more the light energy injected. The more light
injected means the more light backscattered
or reflected back from the fiber to the OTDR.
Long pulse widths are used to see long
distances down a cable. Long pulse widths
will also produce longer zones in the OTDR
trace waveform where measurements are
impossible. We call this the dead zone of an
OTDR
Making Measurements With The OTDR

Fiber Attenuation by Two Point Method.

ORL (Optical Return Loss): The ratio (expressed in dB) of the
reflected power to the incident power from a fiber optic system or
link
ORL = -10 log (Pr/Pi) or ORL = 10 log (Pi/Pr)
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI): A standard for 100
Mbit/s fiber optic local area network.
Attenuation coefficient: The rate of optical power loss with
respect to distance along the fiber, usually measured in decibels
per kilometer (dB/km) at a specific wavelength. The lower the
number, the better the fiber’s attenuation. Attenuation is specified
at 850 and 1300 nm for multimode fiber. and 1310 and 1550 nm for
single mode fiber, over a temperature range of -60°C to +85°C.
The reflectance of an event represents the ratio of the reflected
power to the incident power at that discrete location in a fiber span.
It is expressed in decibels (-dB). The small negative value indicates
a larger reflection than a large negative value. That is, a
reflectance of -33 dB is larger than a reflectance of -60 dB. The
larger reflectance will show up as a higher peak on the trace
waveform
OTDR – Optical Time Domain
Reflecto Meter
 Visual Fault Locators
Visual Fault Locators are red light lasers which visually locate faults, up
to around 5 kilo meters.By sending visual light, the operator can easily see
breaks and important bends in the fibre, as the light escapes out. This
function makes them useful for continuity testing of patch cords, jumpers,
or short sections of fibre.They can also be used in conjunction with:
• splicing machines to identify fibres to be jointed.
• OTDR to analyse failures which occur within the dead zone.
•The most popular fault finders are made with a He - Ne source.
Visual Fault Locators can use 635 nm, 650 nm or 670 nm lasers or LEDs,
•According to the application:
• 670 nm VFL provides long distance fault location and correct light
intensity
• 635 nm VFL provides excellent visibility by shorter fault location.
OPTICAL LINK ENGINEERING
 Constituents of Link

• An optical power loss model for a point-to-

point link is shown below :Optical Fibre

Optical Optical
Tx Rx

Splice ( Joints)
Connector Connector

• Power received on photo detector PR

= Power output of the source PS Total power
loss PT
 Telecom manual
Optical loss budget of each block section. While
calculating the Optical loss budget, following will be
taken into consideration:
a. Equipment margin : 2 dB
b. Connector loss : 2 dB
c. Cable margin : 0.1 dB per Km.
d. System operational margin: 0.03 dB per Km.
e. Splice loss : 0.2 dB.
 Link power budget

System design considerations emanate from the

following performance requirements.

1.Required rate of transmission

2.Tolerable Bit Error Rate (BER)
3.Required availability of link
4.Permitted levels of jitter and slips
 Link power budget
• While providing a link we have to provide sufficient margin against
losses on the link. More over, the receiver sensitivity is a function of
BER and data rate.
• Example: Consider an OFC link with a laser diode source(+3dBm)
and an the APD detector ( sensitivity of -32 dBm for BER - 10 -12 at E4
data rate under consideration). Considering a connector loss of 1dB,
fiber attenuation of 0.25dB/KM, patch cord loss of 3dB and splice loss
of 0.1dB, find the system margin over a 60km link
• Source laser diode.
• Power output level into a fiber fly lead = + 3dBm.
• Detector, InGaAs APD of sensitivity - 32dBm at BER - 10 -12
• connector loss of 1dB
• Optical cable of loss 0.25 dB/km.
• patch cord loss of 3dB
• splice loss of 0.1dB
• Distance = 60 km.
 Calculation
Available power budget = Source power – receiver sensitivity
= +3 - (-32)=35dB
• Attenuation in cable = 0.25X 60 = 15 dB
• splice loss = 21X 0.1 = 2.1 dB
( Assuming 3 km drum we require 20 drums i.e., 21 joints)
• Patch card losses = 3 dB on either side = 6 dB total
• Connector losses = 1 dB on either side = 2 dB
• Total losses = 15+2.1+6+2 = 25.1 dB
• Available system margin = 35 – 25.1 = 9.9dB
 Rise-time budget
•
• A rise-time budget analysis is a convenient method for
determining the dispersion limitation of an optical fibre
link. This is particularly useful for digital systems.
• The four basic elements that may significantly limit
system speed are the transmitter rise time, the group-
velocity dispersion (GVD) rise time of the fiber, the
modal dispersion rise time of the fiber, and the receiver
rise time.
Single-mode Fiber do not experience modal dispersion,
so in these fibres the rise time is related to GVD.
Therefore, for single-mode fibres, we will only consider
three basic elements
 Rise Time budget
• In digital transmission, dispersion puts a limit on the
maximum data rate and the maximum distance i.e. the
information-carrying capacity of a fiber link.
• Rise Time budget analysis is a means for ensuring the
minimum permissible data rate over an optical fiber link.
• Total system rise time is given by equation below :

• t = t 12 + t 22 + t 32

• The following are the 3 commonly encountered rise time

elements in link designing :
– Transmitter Rise Time.
– Dispersion Rise Time of the fiber.
– Receiver Rise Time.
 Limits for Rise-time
•For a signal to be received correctly, the over all time
response of a system must be less than the bit rate.
Conventionally, the total transition time degradation of a
digital link should not exceed 70% of an NRZ bit rate or 35%
of a bit period for RZ bit rate.
•tsys < 70% of NRZ bit rate
tsys < 35% of RZ bit rate
•The bit rate is defined as the reciprocal of the data rate
•The transmitter rise time is primarily due to light source and
its drive circuitry. It is of the order of few nano seconds for
LED source and few picoseconds (25pS) for a laser source.
 How to compute trx

• The fiber rise time is the total dispersion time

down the fiber.
In case of single mode fiber multimode dispersion
is not present and hence the total dispersion is due
to chromatic dispersion only.
• Rise time of the receiver is time interval between
10% and 90% of the rise of output. This is related
to the bandwidth with the following empirical
formula
trx = 0.35 / Brx ( Brx is Rx bandwidth)
 Example of rise time budget
Consider an OFC link operating at 1310nm. The laser
source rise time is 25 pS, spectral width of the laser is
2nm and fiber dispersion is 2pS/nm-km. Find the
feasibility of a100 km E4 link.
Optg. Wavelength =1310 nm
Laser Source rise time = 25 psec
Spectral width of laser = 2 nm.
Fibre dispersion = 2 psec/nm-km
Total length =100km
Therefore, material dispersion related rise time =2x 2 x
100 = 400 psec
(Fiber response time=fiber dispersion X spectral width of source X cable
length)
 Example of rise time budget
Receiver band width = 140 Mbps
Receiver rise time = 0.35/ 140Mbps = 2.5 nsec=.
2500ps
Substituting all these values we get the total rise time
= (25 ² +400 ² +2500 ²) =2532 p sec = 2.532ns
This value is less than the maximum allowable 70 %
of bit interval time for 140 Mbps NRZ data string.
( which is 5 nS.)= 70% of 1/140Mbps =
70X1/140X1/100 = 5 nS.
Since the system rise time is less than 70% of the bit
interval time for NRZ coding , we can finalize the
link
 CONCLUSION
An optical link design must meet both the link
power budget and the system rise time analysis. In
the link power budget analysis one first determines
the power margin between the optical transmitter
output and the minimum receiver sensitivity
needed to establish a specified BER (or SNR for an
analog system)
Once the link power budget has been established,
the designer makes a system rise time analysis to
ensure that the dispersion limit of the link has not
been exceeded.
 System rise-Time & Information Rate
In digital transmission system, the system rise-
time limits the bit rate of the system according
to the following criteria:
tsys < 70% of NRZ bit period
tsys < 35% of RZ bit period
The bit period is defined as the reciprocal of
the data rate.
 TYPICAL VALUES
• 0.2 dB/km for SM fibre loss at 1550 nm;
• 0.35 dB/km for SMF loss at 1310 nm;
• 1 dB/km for MMF loss at 1300 nm;
• 0.05 dB for a fusion splice
• 0.1 dB for a mechanical splice;
• 0.2 - 0.5 dB for a connector pair;
• 3.5 dB for a 1 to 2 splitter (3 dB splitting
loss plus 0.5 dB excess loss at 1550 nm; •
 FTTH, or Fiber To The Home

FTTH, or Fiber To The Home, refers to fiber optic cable that replaces the
standard copper wire of the local Telco. FTTH is desirable because it can carry
high-speed broadband services integrating voice, data and video, and runs
directly to the junction box at the home or building. For this reason it is
sometimes called Fiber To The Building, or FTTB.
Traditional copper telephone wires carry analog signals generated by telephone
equipment, including fax machines. Analog technology is by nature a less
precise signaling technology than digital technology. Though multiplexing has
allowed digital signals to be transmitted across multiple channels over copper
lines, fiber optic cable is superior for relaying these signals and allows for faster
transfer rates and virtually unlimited bandwidth. This opens the door to better
Internet speed, streaming video, and other demanding applications.