UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

The Male Reproductive System

Left side view of the male reproductive system

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UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Sperm is made in the testes (singular – testis). They are

contained in two sacs collectively called the scrotum,
which are found outside the body. (200-500 million)
Sperm is produced at a rate of 120 million per day.
The testis is outside the abdominal cavity, so sperm do not
over heat, which is important for their development. Sperm
develops at 34 degrees C.
Each testis consists of a series of highly coiled structures
known as the seminiferous tubules. (5 m)
Sperm are produced in these tubules before they are sent to
the epididymis to be stored and to mature.
The epididymis leads into the vas deferens, or sperm duct.

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14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

As the sperm travels along the sperm duct, it gets awash by
secretions from three sets of accessory glands – the seminal
vesicles, the prostate gland and the Cowper’s glands.
Seminal vesicles produce an alkaline clear fluid which
contains large amounts of sugar fructose to provide energy
for the sperm to move.
The prostate gland secretes a milky, alkaline fluid
(neutralizes acid to protect sperm)
The Cowper’s gland secretes mucus-like fluid (lubricant).
The fluids from the glands mix with sperm to form semen.
The two sperm ducts open into the top of the urethra, a
tube through which both semen and urine flow.
The urethra passes through the centre of the penis.

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 Rete testis

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UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems
The Female Reproductive System

Left side view of the female reproductive system

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14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

The female gonads are the ovaries, which produce the

female gametes and secrete the sex hormones oestrogen
and progesterone. The ovaries store the immature ova of
the female.

The oviducts (or fallopian tubes) are narrow muscular

tubes leading from the ovary to the uterus.

The uterus is shaped like an inverted pear and it is where the

embryo implants and grows into a baby.

The inner lining of the uterus, or the endometrium, is thick

& is richly supplied with blood vessels.

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14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

The entrance to the lower end of the uterus is the cervix.

This is a circular ring of muscle leading to the vagina, or the
birth canal.

The vagina has elastic tissue and is able to stretch during

childbirth to allow passage for the baby.

During sexual intercourse, the penis deposits semen in the

vagina. The vulva is the opening of the vagina.

The walls of the oviduct are lined with tiny hairs, called cilia.
They beat and the smooth muscles contract, causing
peristaltic movements which send the ovum down the
oviduct to the uterus.

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14.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

The Male and Female Gametes in Man

 Gametes are another name for reproductive cells. The male gametes
are known as sperms or spermatozoa (singular: spermatozoon),
while the female gametes are called eggs or ova (singular: ovum).
 They are formed by meiosis in the testes of the male and the ovaries of
the female and have 23 chromosomes each.
 The fusion of the 2 sets of chromosomes will result in the diploid cell.

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14.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

A sperm has:
a head with a nucleus, little cytoplasm and an acrosome
(contains enzymes to break down layers of cells surrounding
the ovum), (2.5 μm diameter and 50 μm long)
a middle piece containing mitochondria which provide
energy for the sperm to move,
a tail which helps to propel the sperm towards the ovum.

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UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
14.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

An ovum is a relatively large, spherical cell with:

A nucleus and abundant cytoplasm containing nutrients,
A jelly-like coat called the zona pellucida,
A layer of follicle cells which surrounds and protects it.
(140 μm diameter)

(Follicle cells)

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 Corona radiata
(follicle cells)

Nucleolus

Nucleus

Zona pellucida

Cell
membrane

UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

14.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

A comparison between the male and female human gametes

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 Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the making of sperm in the testes
Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous
tubules in the testes.
Seminiferous tubules contain two types of cell, which
are germ cells and sertoli cells.
Sertoli cells act as nurse cells and ensure that germ
cells have adequate nourishment. They also nourish
maturing sperm.
Spermatogenesis begins as the hypothalamus secrete
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) into the
pituitary gland stimulating it to secrete Luteinizing
hormone LH and follicle stimulating hormone FSH
into the blood.
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 Spermatogenesis
LH stimulates cells between the seminiferous tubules
called Leydig cells to secrete the hormone
testosterone.
Testosterone stimulates sperm production by
stimulating germ cells to divide and move inwards, but
also acts as an inhibitor of the hypothalamus in a
negative feedback system.
Testosterone causes immature germ cells called
primordial germ cells to divide by mitosis to form
mature ones called spermatogonia.
The spermatogonia then grow larger to form a primary
spermatocytes.
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 Spermatogenesis
 The primary spermatocytes (2n)then divide by meiosis to
form secondary spermatocytes (n) (first division) and then
spermatids (n) Second division).
These spermatids are immuture and have to undergo
differentiation to become mature spermatids.
FSH stimulates spermatogenesis to complete the
development of spermatozoa from spermatids.
In this differentiation, a centriole develops into a flagella or
tail, the golgi body is converted into the acrosome, the
nucleus becomes condensed and enlongated, and
mitocondria divide and concentrate in the middle piece so
they can provide energy for movement of the flagella.
After sperms are made they then migrate to the epididymis
where they further mature (develop the ability to swim) and
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Spermatogenesis Primodial germ cell

(Mature germ cells)

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 Spermatogenesis

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 Hormonal control
of
spermatogenesis

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 Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries of females and is the
production of eggs also called oocytes.
The ovary produces one approximately every 28 days from
puberty up to about age 40-50.
A female is born with about 2 million oocytes before birth,
but only about 450 ever develop.
Before birth primordial germ cells divide by mitosis to form
oogonia. Each oogonia then grows in size to form primary
oocytes (egg).
Primary oocytes are enclosed by a single layer of cells called
granulosa cells (or follicle cells). This structure is called a
primordial follicle
During her fertile years, every month a primordial follicle
will grow and mature to form a graafian follicle.
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 Oogenesis
Development of the graafian follicle begins as the
hypothalamus secretes GnRH which causes the
release of FSH and LH into the blood.
FSH stimulates the follicle cells to divide to form a
multi-layer around the primary oocyte.
In addition FSH cause cells from the stroma of the
ovary to form another layer outside these cells,
collectively known as the theca. The theca secretes
female sex hormones.
As the primary oocyte develops it secrets oestrogen.
Oestrogen repairs the uterus lining, causes follicle
cells to divide and inhibits FSH in a negative feedback
system.

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 Oogenesis
The diploid primary oocyte then undergoes the first
meiotic division to form 2 haploid cell. The division is
unequal forming a large secondary oocyte (egg) and a
first small polar nuclei which eventually degenerates.
It proceeds to meiosis 2 but remains in metaphase 2
and does not continue until fertilization takes place.
The secondary oocyte starts to grow in the follicle. In
this a thick jelly layer called the zona pellucida is
formed around the oocyte.
A fluid-filled space, the antrum also develops in the
developing structure. At this stage it is mature and is
referred to as a graafian follicle.
The LH simulates ovulation on day 14 of the cycle.
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 Oogenesis mitosis
Oogonia =plural

Primodial germ cell Growth of oogonium

Remains in prophase
of meiosis 1

Females are born

with this

(Fertilised egg)

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UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
 Oogenesis & ovulation

Secondary oocyte Primary

Secondary oocyte
follicle

Secondary oocyte

Secondary oocyte

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 (Primodial follicle with
granulosa cells growing (primary)
around it )

(Primary oocyte Secondary

with follicle cells oocyte
around it)

(secondary)

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UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
 Hormonal
control of
oogenesis

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14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems
Events of the menstrual cycle and hormonal control

Day 1 to 5
The first five days of the menstrual cycle are marked by
menstruation
Day 6 to 10
The immature follicles in the ovary are stimulated by a hormone
called the follicle-stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland to
grow and develop. The follicles secrete oestrogen which causes the
repair and growth of the uterine lining. Oestrogen also inhibits
FSH. (Ensures one egg develops)
Day 11 to 17
Ovulation occurs on Day 14 and is the release of the ooctye from
the graafian follicle. It is caused by a surge of LH and FSH in the
blood. The remaining follicle cells form the corpus luteum, which
continue to secrete the hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
They both keep the uterine lining thick and well supplied with
blood vessels. Progesterone also causes milk formation and inhibits
LH & FSH (negative feedback).
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14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems
Events of the menstrual cycle and hormonal control.
Day 18 to 28
If no fertilization takes place, the egg breaks down and is
released during menstruation. The corpus luteum persists
for some time before degenerating. This takes place about
28 days from the start of the cycle.
When this happens, progesterone & oestrogen production
stop, and the uterine lining (endometrium) breaks down
(menstruation).
If fertilization occurs, the embryo implants itself in the
uterine lining which remains thick to nourish the growing
fetus.
The embryo secretes a hormone called human chrionic
gonadotrophin (HCG) which prevents the corpus luteum
from degenerating so that it can continue to produce
progesterone and oestrogen.
Later in the development of the embryo, the placenta takes
over the production of these hormones.
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14.2 The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Changes in hormone levels, follicle development and thickness of

endometrium during the menstrual cycle

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 Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of the sperm with an egg.
It occurs in the fallopian tube.
It occurs as millions of sperm surround the egg in
which only one will eventually enter.
With the help of the enzyme hyaluronidase, sperm
burrow through the follicle cells surrounding the
oocyte.
Contact of sperm with the zona pellucida triggers
acrosome reaction to digest it.
The sperm wiggles it's way in and upon reaching the
cell membrane of the oocyte, a number of reactions
occur.
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 Fertilization
The oocyte completes its second meiotic division to
form a haploid gamete (ovum) and the second polar
body. (Polar body degenerates).
An electrical charge across the membrane changes,
which causes cortical granules to harden the zona
pellucida, preventing further entry of other sperms.
The sperm also losses its tail and the head moves
towards the nucleus.
The head upon reaching swells and releases the
chromosomes, which fuses with the ovum nucleus to
form a zygote. (Fertilization or conception)

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 Cell division and implantation
After fertilization, the zygote
starts to move toward the
uterus. It is swept along by
peristaltic contractions of the
oviduct and movement of cilia
lining the oviduct.
As it moves it starts its first
stage of embryonic
development called cleavage in
which the zygote divides to
form a ball of cells, but does
not grow in size. They just get
smaller and smaller.

UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

 Cell division and implantation
About 4 days after it
forms a solid mass of cell
called a morula. This
continues to divide to
form a hollow fluid filled
ball called a blastula
About 7 days after, the
blastula becomes a
blastocyst.

UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

 Cell division and implantation
The blastocyst burrows
and becomes implanted
into the uterus.
It is able to do this by the
action of trophoblast cells
which have finger-like
projections called chrionic
villi which are able to hold
on to the uterus and
digest the uterus so
implantation can occur.

UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

 Fertilization

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 Early embryonic development
After implantation the trophoblast develops into the
chorion, which develops a blood circulation.
The chorion comes in contact with uterine blood
vessels and gain nourishment from them.
The blood vessels of the chorion and the mother grow
and expand to form the placenta.
By about nine days, a complex embryo called a gastrula
develops from the blastocyst by the process of
gastrulation.
Cells migrate to different areas, forming the gut cavity
and three main layers.
The three layers are the endoderm (inner layer),
mesoderm (middle) and ectoderm (outer).
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 Early embryonic development
The table shows the fate of the three layers.
Endoderm becomes Mesoderm becomes Ectoderm

Gut lining Circulatory system Brain

Oesophagus Vertebrae Spinal cord

Stomach Muscles Sense organs

Intestines Dermis Epidermis

Lungs Kidneys Adrenal medulla

Thyroid Sex organs

pancreas Tendons

liver Ligaments

Limb bone

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 Extra-embryonic development
After implantation , the embryo produces four extra-
embryonic membranes known as the amnion, yolk sac,
the chorion and the allantois.
The amnion is the outer most membrane which is a
sac for the embryo. The cells secrete amniotic fluid in
which the embryo is suspended in. This cushions the
embryo against mechanical damage.
The yolk has no obvious function in humans but
serves as a food source in reptiles and birds.
The chorion is the outer most layer derived from
trophoblast cells. It forms villi on the fatal side of the
placenta.
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 Extra-embryonic development
The allantois is a sac like out growth from the gut of the
embryo which fuses with the chorionic villi.
The fused structure forms the embryo’s part of the
placenta.
The allantois forms the umbilical cord, which is a tube
containing two arteries and one vein.
The umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood
containing waste products such as urea from the foetus to
the mother.
The umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood containing
nutrients from the mother to the foetus.

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UNIT II
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 Allantois

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UNIT II
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14.3 Fertilization and Development of the Embryo
The Placenta

The placenta is an organ which forms after implantation.

It is comprised of cells derived from both the mother and the
growing foetus.
The foetal part of the placenta consists of finger-like
projections called chorionic villi, which help to increase the
surface area for absorption.
The maternal part of the placenta consists of projections
from the endometrium.
The maternal and foetal blood vessels are in close proximity
with each other, but do not have direct contact. They are
separated by spaces filled with blood from the arterioles in
the uterus wall.

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14.3 Fertilization and Development of the Embryo

Maternal and foetal circulations are kept separate because:

To prevent damage to the foetus’ blood vessels caused by
higher blood pressure of maternal circulation
To prevent agglutination of foetus’ blood as mother and
foetus may be of different ABO blood groups.

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14.3 Fertilization and Development of the Embryo

Diagram of a growing fetus in the uterus

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14.3 Fertilization and Development of the Embryo

The placenta performs the following functions:

 passes from the mother to foetus by diffusion through the blood:
 nutrients such as glucose and amino acids,
 oxygen,
 antibodies,
 passes from the foetus to mother by diffusion through the blood:
 Metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide,
 prevents the passage of drugs, pathogens and chemicals from
maternal blood to foetal blood,
 produces progesterone to maintain the thickness of the uterine
lining.
 It also secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin HCG, which
prevents the break down of the corpus luteum until four months.

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14.3 Fertilization and Development of the Embryo

The umbilical cord linking the foetus to the placenta

contains two important vessels from the foetus – the
umbilical artery (there are two of them) and the umbilical
vein.

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14.3 Fertilization and Development of the Embryo

Development of the Foetus and Birth

 A few weeks before birth, the foetus rotates such

that it is head downwards in the uterus.
 When it is time for labour, the hormone oxytocin
is released, causing powerful rhythmic
contractions in the uterus.
 The amniotic sac bursts to release the amniotic
fluid before the baby is pushed out through the
cervix and vagina.

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 Effect of maternal behavior on foetal development .
Alcohol is able to cross the placenta easily. It excessive
drinking it can cause :

a. Poor muscle tone

b. Reduced growth
c. Being hyperactive and poor concentration
d. Mental retardation
e. Small head and brain

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 Effect of cigarette smoking
Cigarette smoke contains carbon monoxide, tar and
nicotine.
Heavy smoking reduces the average birth weight by 6-
10%.
Nicotine has the ability to cause vasoconstriction in
the umbilical cord reducing blood flow to the fetus. It
also results in a smaller placenta.
Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin to
form carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces oxygen
carraige to both the mother and the feotus.
The feotus develops smaller, deform or retarded.

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 Illegal drugs
Of the illegal drugs, heroin and cocaine are of most
concern.
Cocaine or crack both have the ability to make the baby
addicted and will usually have to undergo withdrawal
symptoms after birth.
Permanent brain damage of the foetus may occur resulting
in mental retardation and premature birth.
Some studies suggest that cocaine-exposed babies are at
increased risk of birth defects involving the urinary tract
and, possibly, other birth defects (9, 10). Cocaine may
cause an unborn baby to have a stroke, which can result in
irreversible brain damage and sometimes death.

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Cocaine use during pregnancy can cause placental
problems, including placental abruption. In this
condition, the placenta pulls away from the wall of
the uterus before labor begins. This can lead to heavy
bleeding that can be life threatening for both mother
and baby. The baby may be deprived of oxygen and
adequate blood flow when an abruption occurs.

UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

Heroin abuse can cause serious complications during
pregnancy, including miscarriage and premature
delivery. Children born to addicted mothers are at
greater risk of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome),
as well.
These risks include poor fetal growth, premature
rupture of the membranes (the bag of waters that
holds the fetus breaks too soon), premature birth and
stillbirth (death within 4 months).
Most babies of heroin users show withdrawal
symptoms during the 3 days after birth, including
fever, sneezing, trembling, irritability, diarrhea,
vomiting, continual crying and seizures.
UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
14.4 Family Planning

Contraception is the prevention of conception, that

is, the fusion of the sperm and the egg.
There are 4 main groups:

Natural contraceptive methods rely on the woman’s

knowledge of her fertile period.
The barrier method prevents the sperm from reaching the
egg, and can be either physical or chemical.
Hormonal methods work by consuming pills containing the
hormones progesterone and/or oestrogen to prevent
ovulation.
Surgical methods are permanent sterilization techniques.

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ANATOMY
VARIATION
AND PHYSIOLOGY
14.4
Family
Planning

UNIT II
IIIPART
CONTINUITY
B: ANIMALAND
ANATOMY
VARIATION
AND PHYSIOLOGY
14.4 Family
Planning

UNIT II
IIIPART
CONTINUITY
B: ANIMALAND
ANATOMY
VARIATION
AND PHYSIOLOGY