LANGUAGE, LEARNING

& TEACHING IN
EDUCATION EDEN111

LECTURE 1 WEEK 3
 Zone of Proximal Development &
Scaffolding

• Many educational practices originate mainly from the

writings of Vygotsky, who theorized that all learning takes
place as a result of social interaction, giving rise to the
concept of ‘social constructivism’.
If you can
ride a bike

How did
you learn?
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One of Vygotsky’s most famous
concept is the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) - the idea
that we learn best when it’s not
too easy or too hard, but when
it’s just right. https://sites.temple.edu/texttotalk/files/2016/11/Goldilocks.jpg

With a little help we are able to

master a new/more advanced
skill and move our zone upwards.
 Share Out
A (recent) time when you increased your skill
set because you shifted your ZPD upwards?
What did you do? Who helped you?
 LANGUAGE
LEARNING
Ever since the SLA field started (1960s) an endless
seriesTHEORIES
of theories have been proposed to explain
how second language learners can become
proficient.
 A theory is (more or less) an abstract set of claims about a
phenomenon under study, the relationships between
them, and the processes which bring about change. Thus, a
theory aims not just at description but at explanation.

Theories are used to predict, explain and understand

phenomena and, in various cases, to challenge and extend
existing knowledge (within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions).
 https://engineering.tufts.edu/sites/g/files/lrezom421/files/
styles/embedded_large/public/Programs_Dept- https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/styles/commemoration_header/
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Cognitive theories Socio cultural theories

Language is a social
focus on the individual phenomenon, and second
learner’s internal cognitive language learning itself is a
processing input ‘social accomplishment, which is
‘situated in social interaction’
(Firth and Wagner, 2007, p. 807).
Achievement of near-native interlanguage is currently
seen as a primary goal of L2 education by many
cognitive SLA theorists. NOT imitation of native like
speech and pronunciation.
○ Interlanguage is described as the learner’s perception or
approximation of the target language.

○ Contains elements of the learner’s L1

English - coffee

Konglish - 커 피 (kopi)
Brief History of Second Language
Acquisition Theories
Behaviorism (Skinner)
Innatism (Chomsky)
Monitor Model (Krashen)
A. BEHAVIOURISM
BF Skinner - American Behavioral Psychologist

TABULA RASA
Minds are a blank slate

Learn behaviors from your

environment
A. BEHAVIOURISM
BF Skinner - American Behavioral Psychologist

Operant Conditioning
Based on reward/punishment

Desired behavior is reinforced with

a positive consequence

Initially continual reinforcement -

later partial reinforcement

https://www.simplypsychology.org/wp-content/uploads/
Operant-Conditioning-Reinforcement-1-1024x1024.jpeg
A. BEHAVIOURISM
BF Skinner - American Behavioral Psychologist

Language Learning
Imitation and approximation

Positive reinforcement for correct

language structure

Repetition yields habit

Baby says “UP” - adult picks up child

A. BEHAVIOURISM
BF Skinner - American Behavioral Psychologist

Criticisms
Mechanical - repetitive

Doesn’t account for creativity and novel

language production

E.g: Jump me down daddy OR Take me

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 B. INNATISM
Noam Chomsky - American Linguist

Universal Grammar
Each individual is born with
the innate ability to acquire
language via a Language
Acquisition Device (LAD)

https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/web_first_images_release.png
 B. INNATISM
Noam Chomsky - American Linguist

S: A UNICORN IS IN THE GARDEN.

Q: IS A UNICORN IN THE GARDEN?

http://abstract.desktopnexus.com/wallpaper/49259/

S: A UNICORN THAT IS EATING A FLOWER IS IN THE GARDEN.

Q: IS A UNICORN THAT IS EATING A FLOWER IN THE GARDEN?
 B. INNATISM
Noam Chomsky - American Linguist

Example:
●The rule of plural nouns ( -s). Children tend to over
generalize to all nouns.

●However, as they experienced the language, they

would revise their hypothesis by not using -s ending to
all nouns in creating plural nouns.

●Children learned innately how to use the rule from

their hypothesis instead of just repeating others.
B. INNATISM
Noam Chomsky - American Linguist

Criticisms
Does not take into account the social
nature of conversations

The idea of LAD is vague

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C. Monitor Model - 5 Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen - American Linguist

1. Acquisition Learning
Hypothesis
● ACQUISITION –Subconscious
process by which linguistic
competence is developed as a result
of using language to communicate.
● LEARNING-Conscious process in
which metalingual knowledge is
developed. Rules/grammar.
C. Monitor Model - 5 Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen - American Linguist

2. Monitor Hypothesis
Language Learners will monitor their
speech production– Focus on errors. Use
learnt knowledge to monitor and correct.
Internally or self-correction.

3 conditions:
○ The second language learner has sufficient time at
their disposal.
○ They focus on form or think about correctness.
○ They know the rule.
C. Monitor Model - 5 Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen - American Linguist

2. Monitor Hypothesis
○ the role of conscious learning is somewhat
limited in second language performance.
○ According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is
minor, being used only to correct deviations
from "normal" speech and to give speech a
more 'polished' appearance.
○ Krashen suggests that there is individual
variation among language learners with regard
to 'monitor' use.
Extroverts: under user Introverts: over
user
Examples
•They know many of the rules of the
English language.
•They are not able to communicate in
speech.
•Their written English might be quite
accurate.
•They don't have speaking fluency
because they are too concerned with
being grammatically correct.
C. Monitor Model - 5 Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen - American Linguist

3. Input Hypothesis
● Attempt to explain how the learner
acquires a second language
● the learner improves and progresses
along with the 'natural order' when
he/she receives a second language 'input'
that is one step beyond his/her current
stage of linguistic competence.
● MORE INPUT=MORE ACQUISITION.
C. Monitor Model - 5 Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen - American Linguist

4. Affective Filter Hypothesis

● Attitude/motivation/confidence other social
emotional factors will impact language learning.
● high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image,
a low level of anxiety and extroversion have a
lower affective filter
● Low motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety,
introversion and inhibition can raise the affective
filter
● Prevents input from being received
Examples
C. Monitor Model - 5 Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen - American Linguist

5. Natural Order Hypothesis

● Grammatical structures are acquired
in a predictable order.
● Same for adults/children and L1/L2

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229867739/figure/fig1/
AS:267488126566460@1440785547736/Proposed-natural-order-for-L2-acquisition-from-Krashen-
1977.png
ROLE OF LANGUAGE ACROSS THE
CURRICULUM (LAC)
●In the hands of a good teacher, students will learn both content
and language.
●Two basic and interconnecting principles behind LAC:
1. All learning takes place through language. Language is
central to learning. Learning involves language not just
as a passive medium for instruction but as the principal
means of forming and handling new concepts.
2. Learning (including language learning) is most successful in a
meaningful context.
ROLE OF LANGUAGE ACROSS THE
CURRICULUM (LAC)
●In the LAC classroom the emphasis is placed on CONTENT and
PROCESS.
●This could be knowledge in a scientific or mathematical or
geographical or historical or musical or artistic context.
●The language used in search of this knowledge becomes a
tool.
●In short, LAC is … ‘a whole language approach so that learners
can build up their knowledge of language without specific
practice of skills…in this way, language arises with a purpose…’

We will come back to this later in this course when we talk

about genres and language functions
 Write
Include your first
name, surname and
student number. I will
collect at the door.

1. How have you seen the behaviorist approach in the classroom?

2. Write about 2 instances when you have you seen the monitor model in
the classroom. Think about all five hypotheses - have you seen evidence of 1? 2?
All of them?

3. Why do you think it is important for language teachers to know about and
understand these theories?