An Introduction

to Geology
 The Science of Geology

 Geology - the science that pursues an

understanding of planet Earth
• Physical geology - examines the materials
composing Earth and seeks to understand
the many processes that operate beneath
and upon its surface
• Historical geology - seeks an
understanding of the origin of Earth and
its development through time
 The Science of Geology

 Geology, people, and the environment

• Many important relationships exist
between people and the natural
environment
• Problems and issues addressed by geology
include
• Natural hazards, resources, world population
growth, and environmental issues
 Geologic time

 Geologists are now able to assign fairly

accurate dates to events in Earth history
(absolute dating)
 Relative dating and the geologic time scale
• Relative dating means that dates are placed
in their proper sequence or order without
knowing their age in years
 The
geologic
time
scale
Figure 1.7
Precambrian
•4.6 billion years to 544 million years.
•Represents 88% of all of the history of the earth.
•Referred to as the Cryptozoic Eon.
–“hidden life”

(no more BIFs)

(prokaryotes)
Precambrian: The First 4 Billion
Years

88% of
geologic time
 Geologic time

 The magnitude of geologic time

• Involves vast times – millions or billions of
years
• An appreciation for the magnitude of
geologic time is important because many
processes are very gradual
(uniformitarianism)
• Earth 4.6 Billion Years Old
 The nature of
scientific inquiry
 Science assumes the natural world is
consistent and predictable
 Goal of science is to discover patterns in
nature and use the knowledge to make
predictions
 Scientists collect data through observation
and measurements
 The nature of
scientific inquiry
 How or why things happen is explained
using a
• Hypothesis – a tentative (or untested)
explanation
• Theory – a well-tested and widely accepted
view that the scientific community agrees
best explains certain observable facts
• Law-a general observation that holds true
without explaining why it holds true
 The nature of
scientific inquiry
 Scientific method involves
• Gathering facts through observations (data)
• Formulation of hypotheses and theories
 There is no fixed path that scientists follow
that leads to scientific knowledge
 A view of Earth

 Earth is a planet that is small and self-

contained
 Earth’s four spheres
• Hydrosphere
• Atmosphere
• Biosphere
• Solid Earth
 ATMOSPHERE Air
Contains all the air in Earth’s system.

BIOSPHERE Living Things

Contains all of Earth’s living things—
Atmosphere
microorganisms, plants, and animals.
Earth’s
Spheres LITHOSPHERE Land
Contains all the cold, hard, solid
land of Earth’s crust (surface), the
semi-solid land underneath the crust,
and the liquid land near the center.

HYDROSPHERE Water
Contains all the solid, liquid, and
gaseous water of Earth.
What is the Biosphere?
 All regions of the Earth that are
capable of supporting life.
 Evolved about 3.5 billion years ago
 20-30 km thickness (deep ocean
trenches into the atmosphere)
 Includes portions of the
hydrosphere, lithosphere,
atmosphere, and cryosphere.
THE BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is the total of all of Earth's
ecosystems

 The global ecosystem is called the

biosphere
 It is the sum
of all the
Earth's
ecosystems
 The biosphere
is the most
complex level
in ecology Figure 34.2A
The Biosphere

 We divide the total biosphere into three

parts

• the Atmosphere

• the Hydrosphere

• the Lithosphere
The Biosphere

 It is the physical and chemical

parameters of each habitat that selects
for the autochthonous community.
The Biosphere

 The Biosphere (a.k.a. Ecosphere) - the

totality of life on earth and the abiotic
surroundings that is inhabited.

 Earth minus sterile areas:

 strata below the crust
 upper atmosphere
 habitats of extreme heat or lacking liquid
water
 Hydrosphere
 The earth’s water is found as a
 LIQUID in rivers, lakes, oceans, rain
 GAS in our atmosphere

 SOLID in snow and ice

 71% of the earth’s surface is covered

by water
 Processes of the
Hydrologic Cycle
 Evaporation - the transformation of
water from a solid or liquid to
a gaseous state
 Condensation - transformation of
vapor into a liquid
 Precipitation - liquid or solid water
that falls from the atmosphere to
the earth’s surface
Oceans
0.5% Groundwater
0.02% Rivers and Lakes
Structure of
Atmosphere

From Cunningham & Cunningham,

2004, Fig. 9.1
Atmospheric Composition % by Volume
Major Constituents
Nitrogen 78.1
Oxygen 20.9

Active Minor Constituents

Water vapor (H2O) variable (0.48 aver.)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.035
Methane (CH4) 0.00014
Nitrous oxide (NO2) 0.00005
Ozone (O3) 0.000007
CFC’s 0.00000014
H2O (liq & ice) 0.00000002

Inactive Minor Constituents

Argon 0.93
Neon 0.0018
Helium 0.00052
Krypton 0.0001
Xenon 0.000009
Other Components of the
Atmosphere
 Water Droplets
 Ice Crystals
 Sulfuric Acid Aerosols
 Volcanic Ash
 Windblown Dust
 Sea Salt
 Human Pollutants
Structure of the
Atmosphere
 Defined by Temperature Profiles
 Troposphere
 Where Weather Happens
 Stratosphere
 Ozone Layer
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Ionosphere
Troposphere
 This is the layer
that is closest to
the surface of the
earth
 It’s elevation
ranges from 0 to
10 km
Stratosphere
 This layer sits on top
of the troposphere
 It’s elevation ranges
from 10 km to
around 25 km
 This layer contains
the ozone layer,
which protects us
from harmful
sunlight
Mesosphere
 This layer is above
the stratosphere
 It’s elevation
ranges from 25 to
100 km
Thermosphere
 This is the highest layer
of the atmosphere
 It’s height ranges from
100 to 400 km
 This is where most
small meteorites burn
up and is also the
location in the
atmosphere that the
northern lights occur
(aurora borealis)
Why is the Mesosphere so
Cold?
 Stratosphere warmed because of
ozone layer
 Thermosphere warmed by atoms
being accelerated by sunlight
 Mesosphere is sandwiched between
two warmer layers
Composition and Altitude
 Up to about 80 km, atmospheric
composition is uniform
(troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere)
 This zone is called the homosphere
 Above 80 km light atoms rise
 This zone is sometimes called the
heterosphere
 Atmosphere

The surrounding air of the Earth

Earth’s internal structure

 Layers defined by composition

• Crust
• Mantle
• Core
 Layers defined by physical properties
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
• Mesosphere
• Inner and Outer Core
 Earth’s
layered
structure
Figure 1.14
Mass (kg) 5.976e+24
Mass (Earth = 1)
Earth Stats
Equatorial radius (km) 6,378.14
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 1.0
Mean density (gm/cm^3) 5.515
Mean distance from the Sun (km) 149,600,000
Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1) 1.0000
Rotational period (days) 0.99727
Rotational period (hours) 23.9345
Orbital period (days) 365.256
Mean orbital velocity (km/sec) 29.79
Orbital eccentricity 0.0167
Tilt of axis (degrees) 23.45
Orbital inclination (degrees) 0.000
Equatorial escape velocity (km/sec) 11.18
Equatorial surface gravity (m/sec^2) 9.78
Visual geometric albedo 0.37
Mean surface temperature 15°C
Atmospheric pressure (bars) 1.013
Atmospheric composition
Nitrogen 77
Oxygen 21
 Rocks and the rock cycle

 Basic rock types

• Sedimentary rocks
• Examples include sandstone and limestone
• Metamorphic rocks
• Formed by “changing” preexisting igneous,
sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks
• Driving forces are increased heat and pressure
• Examples include gneiss and marble
 Rocks and the rock cycle

 The Rock Cycle: One of Earth’s

subsystems
• The loop that involves the processes by which
one rock changes to another
• Illustrates the various processes and paths as
earth materials change both on the surface and
inside the Earth
 The
rock
cycle