Research Methodology

Dr Purnendu Kumar Patra

Unit-2
Research Process
 1.Formulating the Research Problem
RESEARC 2.Review of Literature
H
PROCESS 3.Development of Working Hypothesis
4.Preparing Research Design
5.Determining Sample Design
6.Collection of Data
7. Execution of the Project
8.Analysis of Data
9.Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation of Data
11. Preparation of the Report
1. Formulating the Research Problem
 1.Research Problem
1.Formulating the Research Problem
 There are two types of research problems, viz.,
2.Review of Literature
those which relate to states of nature and
those which relate to relationships between 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

variables. 4.Preparing Research Design

 Initially the problem may be stated in a broad 5.Determining Sample Design

general way and then the ambiguities, if any, 6.Collection of Data

relating to the problem be resolved. 7. Execution of the Project

 Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to
8.Analysis of Data
be considered before a working formulation of the
9.Hypothesis Testing
problem can be set up.
10. Generalization and Interpretation of
 The formulation of a general topic into a specific Data

research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in 11. Preparation of the Report

a scientific enquiry.
 1.Research Problem
1.Formulating the Research Problem
 The best way of understanding the problem is
2.Review of Literature
to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
those having some expertise in the matter.
4.Preparing Research Design
 In an academic institution the researcher can
5.Determining Sample Design
seek the help from a guide.
6.Collection of Data
 In private business units or in governmental
organizations, the problem is usually earmarked 7. Execution of the Project

by the administrative agencies 8.Analysis of Data

9.Hypothesis Testing

10. Generalization and Interpretation of

Data

11. Preparation of the Report

 1.Research Problem
1.Formulating the Research Problem
The researcher must at the same time
2.Review of Literature
examine all available literature to get 3.Development of Working Hypothesis
himself acquainted with the selected 4.Preparing Research Design
problem.
5.Determining Sample Design
He may review two types of literature—
6.Collection of Data
the conceptual literature concerning the
7. Execution of the Project

concepts and theories, 8.Analysis of Data

and the empirical literature consisting of
9.Hypothesis Testing
studies made earlier which are similar to the 10. Generalization and Interpretation of

one proposed. Data

11. Preparation of the Report

Why should we define a problem?
Helps to discriminate relevant data from irrelevant
ones
Asking the right questions to oneself will avoid delays
later on
Helps in the choice of the right design, tools and
techniques
Gives clarity on which relationships to be tested and
which to be left alone
 1.Formulating the Research Problem
Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly
2.Review of Literature

states that the statement of the objective 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

is of basic importance because 4.Preparing Research Design

it determines the data which are to be 5.Determining Sample Design

collected, 6.Collection of Data

the characteristics of the data which are
7. Execution of the Project

relevant, 8.Analysis of Data

relations which are to be explored,
9.Hypothesis Testing
the choice of techniques to be used in these 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
explorations and the form of the final report.
11. Preparation of the Report
Precautions in Formulation of Research
Problem
Avoid overdone subjects
Avoid controversial subjects
Too narrow or too vague definitions
Data should be easily available for the chosen problem
Researcher should be sufficiently qualified
Conducting a background study before selecting a
problem
How to define a Research Problem?
Statement of the problem in a general way:
Immersing self into the problem
Pilot survey
Feasibility analysis
Understanding the nature of the problem:
Go to the origin of the problem
Consult with experts in related field
Surveying available literature:
Become conversant with existing theories
Studying research already undertaken
Familiarising self with expected difficulties
How to define a Research Problem?
Developing ideas through discussion:
Brainstorming with colleagues
Focus group discussions
Expert consultation
Rephrasing the research problem:
A working proposition is developed
As specific as possible
Operationally viable problem
2.Extensive Literature Survey
 2.Extensive Literature Survey
1.Formulating the Research Problem
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief
2.Review of Literature
summary of it should be written down.
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
 It is compulsory for a research worker writing
4.Preparing Research Design
a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis
5.Determining Sample Design
of the topic and submit it to the necessary
Committee or the Research Board for 6.Collection of Data

approval. 7. Execution of the Project

 At this juncture the researcher should 8.Analysis of Data

undertake extensive literature survey 9.Hypothesis Testing

connected with the problem. For this purpose, 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data

the abstracting and indexing journals and 11. Preparation of the Report

published or unpublished bibliographies are

the first place to go to.
 2.Extensive Literature Survey
Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports,
books etc., must be tapped depending on
the nature of the problem.
In this process, it should be remembered
that one source will lead to another.
The earlier studies, if any, which are
similar to the study in hand should be
carefully studied.
A good library will be a great help to
the researcher at this stage.
1.Formulating the Research Problem
2.Review of Literature
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
4.Preparing Research Design
5.Determining Sample Design
6.Collection of Data
7. Execution of the Project
8.Analysis of Data
9.Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
11. Preparation of the Report
Types of Literature Review
Narrative literature review
Also referred to as traditional literature review, critiques
literature and summarizes the body of a literature.
Narrative review also draws conclusions about the topic
and identifies gaps or inconsistencies in a body of
knowledge
 You need to have a sufficiently focused research
question to conduct a narrative literature review
 Systematic literature review
Requires more rigorous and well-defined approach compared to most
other types of literature review.
Systematic literature review is comprehensive and details the
timeframe within which the literature was selected.
Systematic literature review can be divided into two categories: meta-
analysis and meta-synthesis.
 Meta-analysis: Findings are taken from several studies on the same
subject and analyze these using standardized statistical procedures.
In meta-analysis patterns and relationships are detected and
conclusions are drawn.
 Meta-synthesis, on the other hand, is based on non-statistical
techniques. This technique integrates, evaluates and interprets
findings of multiple qualitative research studies.
Scoping literature review
As implied by its name is used to identify the scope or
coverage of a body of literature on a given topic.
Scoping reviews are useful for examining emerging
evidence when it is still unclear what other, more specific
questions can be posed and valuably addressed by a more
precise systematic review.
The main difference between systematic and scoping
types of literature review is that, systematic literature
review is conducted to find answer to more specific
research questions, whereas scoping literature review is
conducted to explore more general research questions.
 Argumentative literature review
Examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an
argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical
problem already established in the literature.
It should be noted that a potential for bias is a major shortcoming
associated with argumentative literature review.
 Integrative literature review
Reviews, critiques, and synthesizes secondary data about
research topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks
and perspectives on the topic are generated.
If your research does not involve primary data collection and data
analysis, then using integrative literature review will be your only
option
3. Development Of Working
Hypothesis
 3. Development of working hypothesis
1.Formulating the Research Problem
 Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in
2.Review of Literature
order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences. 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher 4.Preparing Research Design

by delimiting the area of research and to keep him 5.Determining Sample Design

on the right track. 6.Collection of Data

 Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the 7. Execution of the Project

piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. 8.Analysis of Data

 It also indicates the type of data required and the type
9.Hypothesis Testing
of methods of data analysis to be used. 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
 Occasionally we may encounter a problem where we Data

11. Preparation of the Report

do not need working hypotheses, specially in the case
of exploratory researches which do not aim at testing
the hypothesis
 3. Development of working hypothesis
How does one go about developing working 1.Formulating the Research Problem

hypotheses? The answer is by using the following 2.Review of Literature

approach: 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
4.Preparing Research Design
problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a
solution; 5.Determining Sample Design

(b) Examination of data and records, if available, 6.Collection of Data

concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities
and other clues; 7. Execution of the Project

(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies 8.Analysis of Data

on similar problems; and 9.Hypothesis Testing

(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
original field interviews on a limited scale with interested Data

parties and individuals with a view to secure greater 11. Preparation of the Report

insight into the practical aspects of the problem.

Characteristics of Hypothesis
The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider
it to be reliable.
If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it
should be stating the relationship between variables.
The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope
for conducting more tests.
The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very
simple and it should also be understood that the
simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its
significance.
Types of Hypothesis
Simple hypothesis
Complex hypothesis
Directional hypothesis
Non-directional hypothesis
Null hypothesis
Associative and casual hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
 It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a
single independent variable.
 For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight
faster. Here, eating more vegetables is an independent variable,
while losing weight is the dependent variable.
Complex Hypothesis
 It shows the relationship between two or more dependent
variables and two or more independent variables.
 Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss,
glowing skin, and reduces the risk of many diseases such as
heart disease
Directional Hypothesis
 It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a
particular outcome.
 The relationship between the variables can also predict its nature.
 For example- children aged four years eating proper food over a
five-year period are having higher IQ levels than children not
having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of the
effect.
Non-directional Hypothesis
 It is used when there is no theory involved.
 It is a statement that a relationship exists between two variables,
without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.
Null Hypothesis
It provides a statement which is contrary to the
hypothesis.
It’s a negative statement, stating that there is no
relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

Associative and Causal Hypothesis

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change
in one variable resulting in a change in the other
variable.
Whereas, the causal hypothesis proposes a cause and
4. Preparing The Research Design
 4. Preparing the research design:
 A research design is the plan or framework
used to conduct a research study.
 It involves outlining the overall approach and
methods that will be used to collect and analyze
data in order to answer research questions or
test hypotheses.
 A well-designed research study should have a
clear and well-defined research question, a
detailed plan for collecting data, and a method
for analyzing and interpreting the results.
 A well-thought-out research design addresses
all these features.
1.Formulating the Research Problem
2.Review of Literature
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
4.Preparing Research Design
5.Determining Sample Design
6.Collection of Data
7. Execution of the Project
8.Analysis of Data
9.Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
11. Preparation of the Report
 4. Preparing the research design:
 The researcher will have to state the conceptual 1.Formulating the Research Problem

structure within which research would be conducted. 2.Review of Literature

 The function of research design is to provide for the

3.Development of Working Hypothesis
collection of relevant evidence with minimal
4.Preparing Research Design
expenditure of effort, time and money.
5.Determining Sample Design
 But how all these can be achieved depends mainly
on the research purpose. 6.Collection of Data

 Research purposes may be grouped into four 7. Execution of the Project

categories, viz., 8.Analysis of Data

 Exploration, 9.Hypothesis Testing

 Description, 10. Generalization and Interpretation of

Data
 Diagnosis, and 11. Preparation of the Report
 Experimentation.
 4. Preparing the research design:
 Exploratory RD: 1.Formulating the Research Problem

 Deals with subjective aspects, e.g., experiences, 2.Review of Literature

beliefs, perspectives, and concepts.
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
 Deals with non-numerical data, such as words, images,
and observations. 4.Preparing Research Design

 data are collected via direct observations, interviews, 5.Determining Sample Design

focus groups, and naturally occurring data. 6.Collection of Data

 Methods for conducting qualitative research are
7. Execution of the Project
grounded theory, thematic analysis, and discourse
analysis. 8.Analysis of Data

 Example: A researcher wants to study how people 9.Hypothesis Testing

adopt a certain app. The researcher collects data 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
through interviews and then analyzes the data to look
11. Preparation of the Report
for patterns. These patterns are used to develop a
theory about how people adopt that app.
 4. Preparing the research design:
Descriptive RD:
This quantitative research design is applied
where the aim is to identify characteristics,
frequencies, trends, and categories.
The basis of this research type is a description
of an identified variable.
This research design type describes the
“what,” “when,” “where,” or “how” of
phenomena (but not the “why”).
Example: A study on the different income
levels of people who use nutritional
supplements regularly.
1.Formulating the Research Problem
2.Review of Literature
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
4.Preparing Research Design
5.Determining Sample Design
6.Collection of Data
7. Execution of the Project
8.Analysis of Data
9.Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
11. Preparation of the Report
 4. Preparing the research design:
Diagnostic RD: 1.Formulating the Research Problem

 In diagnostic design, the researcher aims to 2.Review of Literature

understand the underlying cause of a specific 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

topic or phenomenon (usually an area of 4.Preparing Research Design

improvement) and find the most effective 5.Determining Sample Design
solution.
6.Collection of Data
 In simpler terms, a researcher seeks an accurate
7. Execution of the Project
“diagnosis” of a problem and identifies a
solution. 8.Analysis of Data

 Example: A researcher analyzing customer 9.Hypothesis Testing

feedback and reviews to identify areas where 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data

an app can be improved. 11. Preparation of the Report


 4. Preparing the research design:
Experimental RD: 1.Formulating the Research Problem

This research design is used to study 2.Review of Literature

causal relationships. 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

One or more independent variables are 4.Preparing Research Design

manipulated, and their effect on one or more 5.Determining Sample Design

dependent variables is measured. 6.Collection of Data

 Example: Determining the efficacy of a new 7. Execution of the Project

vaccine plan for influenza. 8.Analysis of Data

9.Hypothesis Testing

10. Generalization and Interpretation of

Data

11. Preparation of the Report

 4. Preparing the research design
1.Formulating the Research Problem
 The preparation of the research design,
2.Review of Literature
appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

following: 4.Preparing Research Design

the means of obtaining the information; 5.Determining Sample Design

the availability and skills of the researcher and his 6.Collection of Data

staff (if any); 7. Execution of the Project

explanation of the way in which selected means of
8.Analysis of Data
obtaining information will be organized and the
9.Hypothesis Testing
reasoning leading to the selection;
10. Generalization and Interpretation of
the time available for research; and Data

the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance 11. Preparation of the Report

available for the purpose.

5. Determining Sample Design
5. Determining sample design:
Simple Random
Systematic
Stratified
Cluster Sampling
Multi-stage Sampling
Quota Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Judgmental Sampling
 Sampling Method

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Random Convenience

Systematic Sampling Quota

Stratified Judgmental

Cluster

Multistage
 Probability and Non Probability
Sampling Sampling Method

Non-Probability
 All the items under consideration in any Probability Sampling
Sampling

field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ Simple Random Convenience

or ‘population’. Systematic Sampling Quota

 A sample design is a definite plan Stratified Judgmental

determined before any data are actually Cluster

collected for obtaining a sample from a Multistage

given population
 With probability samples each element
has a known probability of being
included in the sample but the non-
probability samples do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability.
 Simple Random Sampling Method

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

 This type of sampling is also known as Simple Random Convenience

chance sampling or probability sampling Systematic Sampling Quota

where each and every item in the Stratified Judgmental

population has an equal chance of
Cluster
inclusion in the sample and each one of the
possible samples, in case of finite universe, Multistage

has the same probability of being selected.

 For example,
 if we have to select a sample of 300 items
from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can
put the names or numbers of all the 15,000
items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery.
Using the random number tables is another
method of random sampling.
 Systematic Sampling
Sampling Method
In some instances the most practical
Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
way of sampling is to select every
Sampling

Simple Random Convenience

15th name on a list, every 10th Systematic Sampling Quota
house on one side of a street and so Stratified Judgmental
on. Cluster
Sampling of this type is known as
Multistage

systematic sampling.
An element of randomness is usually
introduced into this kind of sampling
by using random numbers to pick
up the unit with which to start.
 Stratified Sampling
 If the population from which a sample is to
Sampling Method
be drawn does not constitute a Probability Sampling
Non-Probability
Sampling
homogeneous group, then stratified
Simple Random Convenience
sampling technique is applied so as to
Systematic Sampling Quota
obtain a representative sample.
Stratified Judgmental
 In this technique, the population is
Cluster
stratified into a number of non
Multistage
overlapping subpopulations or strata and
sample items are selected from each
stratum.
 Then the items selected from each stratum
is based on simple random sampling
 The entire procedure, first stratification and
then simple random sampling, is known as
 Cluster Sampling
Sampling Method

Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
Sampling

Simple Random Convenience

 Cluster sampling involves grouping the
Systematic Sampling Quota

population and then selecting the Stratified Judgmental

groups or the clusters rather than Cluster
individual elements for inclusion in the Multistage
sample.
 Suppose some departmental store wishes
to sample its credit card holders.
 It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers.
The sample size is to be kept say 450.
 For cluster sampling this list of 15,000
card holders could be formed into 100
clusters of 150 card holders each.
 Three clusters might then be selected for
the sample randomly.
 Multistage Sampling Sampling Method

Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
Sampling

 This is a further development of the idea Simple Random Convenience

of cluster sampling. Systematic Sampling Quota

 This technique is meant for big inquiries Stratified Judgmental

extending to a considerably large Cluster

geographical area like an entire country. Multistage

 Under multi-stage sampling the first stage

may be to select large primary sampling
units such as states, then districts, then
towns and finally certain families
within towns.
 If the technique of random-sampling is
applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-stage
random sampling.
 Convenience Sampling
Sampling Method

Non-Probability
Convenience sampling involves
Probability Sampling
Sampling

Simple Random Convenience

using respondents who are Systematic Sampling Quota

“convenient” to the researcher. Stratified Judgmental

There is no pattern whatsoever in Cluster

acquiring these respondents Multistage

They may be recruited merely

asking people who are present in
the street, in a public building, or in
a workplace
Convenience sampling is also
known as purposive sampling.
 Convenience Sampling Sampling Method

Probability Sampling
Non-Probability
Sampling
 The concept is often confused with “random Simple Random Convenience
Systematic
sampling” because of the notion that people are Sampling
Quota

Stratified Judgmental
being stopped “at random” (in other words,
Cluster
haphazardly).
Multistage
 However, whereas random sampling (using
random numbers to pick potential respondents or
participants from a sampling frame) generally
results in a statistically balanced selection of the
population, a convenience sample has an
extremely high degree of bias
 This sampling method involves purposive or
deliberate selection of particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample which
represents the universe.
 E.g: If a researcher wishes to collect data from
petrol buyers, he may select a fixed number of
 Sampling Method
Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
Sampling
Simple Random Convenience

Quota sampling Systematic

Sampling
Quota

Stratified Judgmental

In stratified sampling the cost of taking Cluster

Multistage

random samples from individual strata is

often so expensive that interviewers are
simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of items
for sample being left to the interviewer’s
judgment. This is called quota sampling.
The size of the quota for each stratum is
generally proportionate to the size of that
stratum in the population.
Quota sampling is an important form of non-
probability sampling.
 Sampling Method
Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
Sampling
Simple Random Convenience

Quota sampling Systematic

Sampling
Quota

Stratified Judgmental

 Let us assume that we need to know about the career Cluster

Multistage
goals of university students. More particularly, the
differences in the career goals among fresher, juniors
and seniors are to be examined. Suppose the
concerned university contains 10,000 students and
can be taken as our population.
 Now, we have to divide our population of 10,000
students into categories such as freshers, juniors and
seniors. Suppose we find that there are 3000 freshers
(30%), 2500 junior students (25%) and 2000 senior
students (20%). Our sample must have these
proportions. It means that if we sample 1000 students,
then we must consider 300 freshers, 250 juniors and
200 seniors. Lastly, we may start collecting samples
from these students based on our proportion.
 Sampling Method

Judgmental Sampling
Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
Sampling
Simple Random Convenience
Systematic
Quota
Sampling
In judgmental sampling the researcher’s Stratified Judgmental

Cluster
judgement is used for selecting items Multistage

which he considers as representative of

the population.
For example,
A judgement sample of college students
might be taken to secure reactions to a
new method of teaching.
 Judgement sampling is used quite
frequently in qualitative research where
the desire happens to be to develop
hypotheses rather than to generalize to
larger populations.
 Sampling Method

Judgmental Sampling
Non-Probability
Probability Sampling
Sampling
Simple Random Convenience
Systematic
Quota
Sampling

In a study wherein a researcher wants Stratified Judgmental

Cluster
to know what it takes to graduate with Multistage

distinction in college, the only people

who can give the researcher first hand
advise are the individuals who
graduated with distinction. Since this
very specific and very limited pool of
individuals that can be considered as a
subject, the researcher must
use judgmental sampling.
6.Collecting Data
6.Collecting Data
I. By observation 1.Formulating the Research Problem

2.Review of Literature
II. Through personal interview
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
III. Through telephonic interviews
4.Preparing Research Design
IV. By mailing of questionnaires 5.Determining Sample Design

V. Through schedules 6.Collection of Data

7. Execution of the Project

8.Analysis of Data

9.Hypothesis Testing

10. Generalization and Interpretation of

Data

11. Preparation of the Report

7. Execution Of The Project
 7. Execution of the project
 Execution of the project is a very important step in the 1.Formulating the Research Problem

research process. If the execution of the project 2.Review of Literature

proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
would be adequate and dependable.
 In such a situation, questions as well as the possible 4.Preparing Research Design

answers may be coded. 5.Determining Sample Design

 If the data are to be collected through interviewers, 6.Collection of Data

arrangements should be made for proper selection 7. Execution of the Project

and training of the interviewers.
8.Analysis of Data
 Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that
the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely 9.Hypothesis Testing

and efficiently. 10. Generalization and Interpretation of

Data
 A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated
11. Preparation of the Report
factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as
possible.
 If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some
8. Analysis Of Data
 8. Analysis of data:
1.Formulating the Research Problem
The analysis of data requires a number of
2.Review of Literature
closely related operations such as 3.Development of Working Hypothesis
establishment of categories,
4.Preparing Research Design

the application of these categories to raw 5.Determining Sample Design

data through coding, tabulation and then 6.Collection of Data

drawing statistical inferences. 7. Execution of the Project

8.Analysis of Data

9.Hypothesis Testing

10. Generalization and Interpretation of

Data

11. Preparation of the Report

9. Hypothesis-testing
 9. Hypothesis-testing:
1.Formulating the Research Problem
 After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is
in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had 2.Review of Literature

formulated earlier. 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

 Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be

4.Preparing Research Design
contrary? This is the usual question which should be
5.Determining Sample Design
answered while testing hypotheses.
 Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have 6.Collection of Data

been developed by statisticians for the purpose. 7. Execution of the Project

 The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or

8.Analysis of Data
more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object
9.Hypothesis Testing
of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
 If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, 11. Preparation of the Report
generalizations established on the basis of data may be
stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches
in times to come.
10.Generalisations And
Interpretation
 10.Generalisations and interpretation:
1.Formulating the Research Problem
 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
2.Review of Literature
times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. 3.Development of Working Hypothesis

 As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies 4.Preparing Research Design

in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. 5.Determining Sample Design

If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, 6.Collection of Data

He might seek to explain his findings on the 7. Execution of the Project

basis of some theory. 8.Analysis of Data

 It is known as interpretation. The process of 9.Hypothesis Testing

interpretation may quite often trigger off new 10. Generalization and Interpretation
of Data
questions which in turn may lead to further 11. Preparation of the Report
researches.
11.Preparation Of The Report Or
The Thesis
11.Preparation of the report or the thesis:
 The layout of the report should be as follows:
1.Formulating the Research Problem
I. Preliminary pages;
I. Title and date 2.Review of Literature

II. acknowledgements
3.Development of Working Hypothesis
III. Foreword
IV. table of contents 4.Preparing Research Design
V. list of tables
VI. List of graphs and charts 5.Determining Sample Design

II. Main Report

6.Collection of Data
I. Introduction
II. Literature Review- Gaps, Hypothesis 7. Execution of the Project
III. Objectives
IV. Methodology- Research Design, Sampling Design 8.Analysis of Data

V. Data Analysis
9.Hypothesis Testing
VI. Summary of findings
VII. Conclusion 10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
VIII. Recommendations
III. End matter. 11. Preparation of the Report

I. Appendices
II. Bibliography
III. Index
 Research Design

Research Design
Exploratory
Conclusive R.D.
R.D.

Descriptive R.D. Causal R.D.

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
R.D. R.D.
Single Cross- Multiple Cross-
Sectional Sectional
Exploratory Research Design
I. Research design in case of exploratory research
studies
The main purpose of such studies is that of
formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view.
the survey of concerning literature;
the experience survey and
the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples
Exploratory research is carried out for a difficulty
which has not been clearly defined. It helps in
figuring out the best research design, data collection
method and choice of subjects.
Exploratory Research Design
Initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature
of a problem
Does not provide conclusive evidence
Subsequent research expected.
If not well defined:
Exploratory Research is used to clarify/define a
problem
Exploratory research is defined as the initial research
into a hypothetical or theoretical idea.
This is where a researcher has an idea or has observed
something and seeks to understand more about it.
Qualitative techniques
Projective Techniques
Depth Interview
Experience Survey
Focus Groups
Observation.
Projective Techniques
Word association tests- personality, thought patterns
Sentence completion tests- He speaks English____.
(Correct).. She is much___ (wise) than her sister.
Story completion tests -
Pictorial Techniques
 Thematic apperception test (T.A.T.)- series of photos- story
 Rorschach test
Sociometry- assessment of social choices
Depth Interview
 In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that
involves conducting intensive individual interviews with a
small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on
a particular idea, program, or situation.
 Face to face
 Emphasis on Body language
 Listen rather than talk
 Guided conversation
 Is conducted using a discussion guide
 Projective techniques can be incorporated into the interview
too.
Experience Survey
An experience survey is a set of questions designed to
gauge the overall satisfaction of a group of people
who have shared a common experience. Businesses
commonly distribute these surveys among customers,
and educational institutions often distribute surveys
among students.
multiple-choice questions
open-ended questions
Focus Groups
Focus groups were originally called "focused
interviews" or "group depth interviews".
A focus group could be defined as a group of
interacting individuals having some common interest
or characteristics, brought together by a moderator,
who uses the group and its interaction as a way to gain
information about a specific or focused issue
Observation
Structured observation //Unstructured observation
Participant observation//non-participant
observation//disguised observation
Controlled//uncontrolled observation
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Descriptive Research Designs:
Concept, types and uses.
Concept of Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research
Descriptive Research Designs:
Descriptive research design is a scientific method
which involves observing and describing the behavior
of a subject without influencing it in any way.
Many scientific disciplines, especially social science
and psychology, use this method to obtain a general
overview of the subject.
Give a detailed sketch or profile of the respondent
population being studied. This might require a
structured primary collation of the information to
understand the concerned population.
Descriptive Research Designs:
Observational, defined as a method of viewing and
recording the participants
Case study, defined as an in-depth study of an
individual or group of individuals
Survey, defined as a brief interview or discussion with
an individual about a specific topic.
Cross-Sectional Design
Both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal studies
are observational studies. This means that researchers
record information about their subjects without
manipulating the study environment.
At Single time.
Example: A Danish Ice-Cream firm wants to find out
how to target the Indian consumer to indulge in high
end ice creams.
Cross-Sectional Design
Cohort Analysis: Multiple Sample groups at different
time intervals, is called cohort studies.
Example: in the 9/11 case, if we study and compare
the attitudes of middle-aged Americans versus
teenaged Americans towards Asian-American, post the
event. It would be cohort analysis.
Longitudinal Design
A longitudinal study, like a cross-sectional one, is
observational. So, once again, researchers do not
interfere with their subjects.
In a longitudinal study, researchers conduct several
observations of the same subjects over a period of
time, sometimes lasting many years.
Cross-sectional Vs Longitudinal Example
You want to study the relationship between smoking
and stomach cancer. You first conduct a cross-sectional
study to see if there is a link between smoking and
stomach cancer, and you discover that a link exists in
overweight men but not in fitter men.
You then decide to design a longitudinal study to
further examine this relationship in overweight men.
Without the cross-sectional study first, you would not
have known to focus on this group in particular.
Thank You