EEEE2045 – Lecture 3 (EM)

Electrical Energy Conditioning and Control

Module Co-Convenor – Dr. Gaurang Vakil
Associate Professor of Electrical Machines and Drives
Power Electronics, Machines and Control Group
gaurang.vakil@nottingham.ac.uk
Room B18 – PEMC Building (Jubilee Campus)

Module Conveners: Dr Alan Watson

Module Co-Conveners: Prof Jon Clare
Dr Gaurang Vakil
Dr Richard Davies
 DC Machines
• Construction
• Principle of operation
• Example of the first year project
• The commutator
• Equivalent circuit
• Torque in DC motor
• Operating characteristics
• Example
• Types of DC machine
• DC machine testing
DC Machine Construction
Practical DC Machines
 Commutators

Industrial DC machines typically employ several sets of

commutators
 Field Poles

In isolation, operates as a simple electromagnet

 Armature / Rotor

Conductors in slots with retaining structure

Principle of Operation
 DC Machine Components
• Main components of DC machines
• Field Winding
• Armature Winding
• Commutator
• Brushes
• That’s all…
Process of
Commutation

Construction Flux Pattern Manufactured Machine

 DC Machine Fundamentals
• The DC machine in its simplest form has 2 windings:
• Field Winding –generally on the stator of the machine. This provides the excitation flux,
the B in the torque equation. This winding has a low volt-amp product.
• Armature Winding –generally on the rotor of the machine. This provides the I in the
torque equation. The coils of the armature winding are connected to the machine’s
terminals through a commutator. Current is transferred via carbon brushes. The
commutator –ensures orthogonal field and torque producing current in armature
winding. This winding has a high volt-amp product and is responsible for energy
conversion.

Construction Flux Pattern Manufactured Machine

 Why DC Machine?
• What is special about DC Machines ?
• DC machines are the simplest form of electrical machine in terms of understanding
machine operation and in terms of modelling it mathematically. This helps us to
understand the concepts of electrical machine operation and is often used as the basis
of AC electrical machines control. –d-q axis vector control - Decoupling
• For control purposes, the field current can be maintained constant consequently
having a constant field. Torque is then directly proportional to the armature current ia.
• In an ideal machine we would want the field and armature current to be independently
controlled -the DC machine comes very close to this
• Physically it is easy to demonstrate the switching and electronic commutation – The
Commutator (next section)

Field Winding Armature Winding

Commutation and Commutator
 Winding Commutation
• What is commutation?
• Switching on and off of the current (or changing direction or current) in the
section/winding of the machine is called commutation
• Why do we need commutation?
• DC machine commutation aims to keep direction of current and direction of field
orthogonal to produce a unidirectional peak torque
• How can it be achieved?
• By using commutator – video shows the importance of the commutator in achieving the
commutation.
• Is/are there any other way/s to perform commutation?

Process of
Commutator
Commutation
 The Commutator
• The commutator plays a very important role in DC machines as it
ensures the correct direction of the current under each pole to
have a net positive torque produced

• As the rotor with its armature winding rotates, the conductors in

the slots move from being under one pole (say a north pole) to
the next (which will then be a south) – and thus the sign of B
changes!

• Consequently the direction of I in the conductors must change so

that the direction of force and torque remain the same.

• This process of changing current direction is called

COMMUTATION
Physical Understanding of the Commutator

𝑑𝑖
𝑉 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAtPHANEfQo&t=178s
 The Commutator
• The currents in the conductor thus change direction in a very
short time interval when the coil they are part of is short circuited
by the brush on the commutator.

• The sudden change in current requires a very high di/dt and as

the coil is inductive there will be a high associated

𝑑𝑖
𝑉 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡

• The brush contact drop depends on the material, however it is in

the region of 1V. Most times this is neglected in calculations as it
is very small compared to the voltage applied to the armature.
Torque and Operating
Characteristics
 Torque in DC Motor
• Torque developed by an ideal DC Motor
𝜋
𝑇 =2 ∫ 𝐵 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝐿 ∙ 𝑅 2 ∙ 𝑑 𝜃
0

2
𝑇 =2 𝐵 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝐿 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝜋

𝑇 =2 ∙ 𝑉 ∙ 𝐵∙ 𝐴
• The salient field winding tooth (pole) usually spans () only about
0.7 of the pole pitch ()
• Torque produced by DC Motor is thus given as

λ𝑓
𝑇 =2 ∙ ∙𝑉 ∙ 𝐵∙ 𝐴
λ𝑝
 Equivalent Circuit
• DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
• Resistance
• Inductance (field and armature)
• Back EMF
• Brush drop
• DC Machine Equations
𝑑 𝑖𝑎
𝑣 𝑎= 𝑅𝑎 𝑖 𝑎+ 2 𝑣 𝑏 + 𝐿𝑎 + 𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝜔𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝑣 𝑓 =𝑅 𝑓 𝑖 𝑓 + 𝐿 𝑓
𝑑𝑡

• In steady state (di/dt = 0) and neglecting brush voltage drop:

𝑣 𝑎= 𝑅𝑎 𝑖 𝑎+ 2 𝑣 𝑏 + 𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝜔𝑚 =𝑅 𝑎 𝑖𝑎 + 𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝜔 𝑚
𝑣 𝑓 =𝑅 𝑓 𝑖 𝑓
 Operating Characteristics
• DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
• Resistance
• Inductance (field and armature)
• Back EMF
• Brush drop
• DC Machine Equations
𝐸 𝑎 𝑖𝑎=𝑇 𝑒 𝜔 𝑚=𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖𝑎 𝜔 𝑚
Neglecting resistive
𝑇 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖𝑎 and brush voltage drop
𝑣 𝑎 = 𝐸 𝑎 = 𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝜔𝑚
• Constant Torque or Constant Field Operation
• If is kept constant once established, Torque is then proportional to I a
• Va must change directly with speed ignoring the voltage drop in the winding
resistance. When If is kept constant, the armature voltage increases with speed
of the motor up to a maximum speed.
• Operation from a fixed dc voltage source needs a means of limiting the current
 Operating Characteristics
• Example : a 35kW 440V machine will have:
• An armature current of approximately 83A.
• The armature resistance will be approximately 0.21 Ohm.
• The zero speed current for a direct on line start will be therefore 2100A
(dangerous)
• Ways of operation: 𝑇 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖𝑎
• Supplied from a controllable DC voltage source.
• OR a variable series resistance is used for starting on a fixed dc supply (except
for very small motors) 𝑣𝑎
𝑣 𝑎 = 𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝜔𝑚 𝜔 𝑚 =
• Constant Power Region of operation 𝐾 𝑎𝑖 𝑓
• Va is held constant once it is established, Ia has a maximum safe value so power
is constant
• Increasing speed is obtained by REDUCING the field current
• Torque then reduces as If reduces
• Mechanical power is therefore constant. Torque reduces in inverse proportion to
speed increase
 Application Torque Speed Characteristic
• Design considerations
• Voltage
• Current
• Temperature
• Speed
• Base operating point
• Constant Torque
• Constant Power
Example
Nameplate
 DC Machines
• 40HP, 650RPM:
• 40*746W = 29.8kW output, Torque = 437.8Nm (at 68.07rad/s)
• 240V, 140A supply:
• Input power = 33.6kW, efficiency = 89%
• 650/1750RPM:
• Normal and max safe speed with field weakening
• Winding connection:
• Shunt
• Field amps 2.89/0.8:
• Normal & max speed (field weakened) current
• Armature current (motor) = 137.1A/139.2A
• Field coil resistance:
• 64.4Ω@ 250C (rated ambient)
• Duty: Continuous, 60C rise:
• Will operate continuously at rated currents with 600C max temp rise (class A
insulation)
 DC Machines
• Equivalent circuit parameters: 𝑇 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖𝑎

• Ka = 𝑇𝑒/(𝐼𝑓𝐼𝑎)=437.8/(2.89×137.1)=1.1049
𝐸 𝑎=𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝜔 𝑚
• Ea = KaIf= 1.1049x2.89x68.07 = 217.4V

• Rfw= 𝑉𝑡/𝐼𝑓=240/2.89=83Ω@ 850C

• At max field weakening, Ifw= 0.8

• Rfc= (𝑉𝑡/𝐼𝑓𝑤)-Rfw= (240/0.8)-83 = 217Ω

• Rfc= 0 to 217Ω
Types of DC Machine
 DC Machine Winding Connections
• Four major types
Separately Excited
• Separately excited
Common form with most
• Series excited accurate control
• Shunt connection
• Compound connection

Series Excited
DC or AC (universal motor) – used for car starter
motor and dc traction motor, home appliances

Shunt Connection
Compound Connection
• The two circuits above are
• The motor has two winding
connected to the same
per field coil (or per pole)
voltage source
• One is connected in parallel
• Can be dangerous – see
with the armature and other
armature reaction effects
is connected in series
later on
 Separately Excited DC Machine
• Separate control of field and armature gives full range of control
options, Rfc is a variable resistance for field control

𝑇 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐼 𝑓 𝐼 𝑎

𝐸 𝑎=𝐾 𝑎 𝐼 𝑓 𝜔𝑚

𝑣𝑎
𝜔𝑚=
𝐾𝑎 𝐼𝑓
 Shunt / Parallel Connection

• Field and armature in parallel,

• Vf = Vt
• Gives high torque at low speed

𝐕 𝐭 =𝐄 𝐚 + 𝐑 𝐚 𝐈𝐚 =( 𝐑 𝐟𝐰 + 𝐑 𝐟𝐜 ) 𝐈 𝐟

𝐸 𝑎=𝐾 𝑎 𝐼 𝑓 𝜔𝑚

𝑇 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝐼 𝑓 𝐼 𝑎
𝑉 𝑡 − 𝐼 𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚=
𝐾𝑎 𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚= − 𝑇
𝐾 𝑎 𝐼 𝑓 ( 𝐾𝑎 𝐼 𝑓 )2
 Shunt / Parallel Connection

• So, if Vt is fixed (fixed supply)

and If is constant, increasing
speed reduces torque linearly

• Used for constant speed fixed

loads (pumps, fans and tools).

• Armature reaction can cause

critical imbalance as armature
currents can decrease field
currents, further increasing
armature current….
 Compound Connection

• Series and parallel field windings

to give a compromise between
series and parallel performance

𝐕 𝐭 =𝐄 𝐚 + 𝐈 𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 + 𝐈 𝐭 𝐑 𝐬

𝐈 𝐭 =𝐈 𝐚 + 𝐈 𝐟
DC Machine Testing
 Test to Determine E and Ka
• Consider the following test setup

1. Motor drive armature of the dc machine is at a fixed speed

2. Armature voltage is measured with voltmeter
3. Armature current is zero as the armature is only connected to the voltmeter
4. Thus Va is identical to E
5. The field current if is varied from zero to above the rated values in steps
6. At each field current step the armature voltage which is equivalent to E is
 Test to Determine E and Ka
• Plot of E v/s if for a DC machine 𝑇 𝑒=𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝑖𝑎
𝐸 𝑎=𝐾 𝑎 𝑖 𝑓 𝜔 𝑚
𝐸𝑎
𝐾 𝑎=
𝑖 𝑓 𝜔𝑚

Typically,
Ifa/Ifs = 2

And
If rated = 1.5*Ifa
 Test to Determine E and Ka
• Using machine winding parameters one can calculate the curve
of flux per pole and curve for air gap flux density from the open
circuit curve E v/s if for a DC machine
 Torque and Back EMF

Power segregation in DC machines

• Field Circuit (steady state) 𝑉 𝑓 =𝐼 𝑓 ∙ 𝑅 𝑓

2
• Power lost in field 𝑉 𝑓 ∙ 𝐼 𝑓 =𝐼 𝑓 ∙ 𝑅 𝑓

• Armature circuit (steady state) +

Power

Terminal Power lost in Power lost in Power conversion

Power (Input) resistance contact (brushes) (mechanical power)