MITOSIS occurs in most

somatic cells and results in the

distribution of identical copies
of the parent cell's genome to
the resulting cells

MODEL NO 24
 Types of Cell Division

• Two distinct events occur in cell division:

1. Karyokinesis: division of the nucleus
• 2. Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm
The two events are usually, but not always,
coupled.
 MODEL: 24/1
MITOSIS
•1. New DNA is synthesized
during the S phase of
interphase,
•2. So that in diploid cells the
amount of DNA has doubled
by the onset of mitosis to the
tetraploid value,
• 3. The chromosome number
is still diploid
•4. The strands of chromatin
are highly extended during
interphase
INTERPHASE CELL
 MODEL: 24/2

PROPHASE: The
strands of chromatin
begin to shorten,
thicken.
 MODEL: 24/3
PROPHASE:
Chromosome thicken further
and resolve themselves into
recognizable chromosomes,

Each chromosomes, is made up of

two chromatids joined at the
centromere.

Centrioles begin to separate, moving

to opposite poles of the cell;

Parallel microtubules are

synthesized between them to create
the central spindle and others radiate
to form the astral rays, collectively
termed asters.
 MODEL: 24/3
• As prophase
proceeds, the
nucleoli disappear
and finally the
nuclear envelope
suddenly
disintegrates into
small vesicles to
release the
chromosomes. This
event marks the end
of prophase.
 MODEL: 24/4
PROMETAPHASE
1.Centrioles move to the ends of the
cell
2. Chromosomes arrange at the
equator of the spindle
3. As the nuclear envelope
disappears, the spindle microtubules
invade the central region of the cell
and the chromosomes move towards
the equator of the spindle
4. Once they have arrived at this
imaginary plane (the metaphase or
equatorial plate), the chromosomes
attach by their centromeres to spindle
microtubules and are so arranged in a
star-like ring when viewed from either
pole of the cell or sectional across
this plane
 MODEL: 24/5
CUT SPINDLE
The spindle and
two asters
together
constitute the
achromatic
figure or diaster
(amphiaster).
 MODEL: 24/6

Spindle
microtubules are
so arranged in a
star-like ring when
viewed from either
pole of the cell
 MODEL: 24/7
ANAPHASE

•The centromere in
metaphase is a double
structure;
• It separates into two
halves
•Both halves carry an
attached chromatid,

•So that the original

chromosome has, in
effect, split lengthwise
into two new
chromosomes.
 MODEL: 24/8
ANAPHASE

The split chromosomes

move apart, one towards
each pole.
 MODEL: 24/8
TELOPHASE

At the end of anaphase

the chromosomes are
grouped at each end of
the cell, both
aggregations being
diploid in number.
The chromosomes now
re-extend.
 TELOPHASE
MODEL: 24/8
The nuclear envelope
reappears,
Beginning as
membranous vesicles at
the ends of the
chromosomes.
Nucleoli also reappear.
The cytoplasm also
divides to be
surrounded by the
cytoplasmic membrane
to form two diploid cells
MEIOSIS
MODEL NO: 25
 During meiosis there are two cell
divisions:
1. In the interphase prior to the first division DNA
is replicated in the usual manner, resulting in:
• the tetraploid amount of DNA(4n),
• the chromosomal number is diploid(46).
• During meiosis I the DNA is reduced to the
diploid(2n) amount in each resultant cell,
• But the chromosome number is halved to the
haploid value(23)
• In meiosis II, the DNA in each new cell formed
is reduced to the haploid(1n) amount,
• The chromosome number is haploid(23).
INTERPHASE
BEFORE MEIOSIS I: DNA
MODEL NO. 25/A
DUPLICATION

MEIOSIS I

Prophase I is
divided into five
substages: the
leptotene,
zygotene,
pachytene and
diplotene stages
and diakinesis
 MODEL: 25/B
Leptotene Stage:

Chromosomes
appear as individual
threads attached at
one end to the
nuclear envelope
and show
characteristic
beads
(chromomeres)
throughout their
length.
 MODEL: 25/C

Zygotene Stage

Chromosomes have come

together side by side in
homologous pairs

This process is also called

synapsis, conjugation or
pairing.

Each pair is now forms a

bivalent.
 MODEL: 25/D
The unequal X and Y sex
chromosomes, pair end
to end
The remaining parts are
differential segments.
By electron microscopy,
homologous
chromosomes appear
held together by a highly
structured fibrillar band,
the synaptonemal
complex which occupies
the space (about 100 nm
wide) between them
 MODEL: 25/E
Pachytene Stage

•The two chromatids, joined at

the centromere, become
visible.

• Each bivalent pair, consists of

four chromatids, forming a
tetrad.

•Two chromatids, one from

each bivalent chromosome,
partially coil round each other,
and during this stage it is
exchange of DNA (crossing
over or decussation) occurs by
breaking and rejoining,
 MODEL: 25/F
Diplotene Stage

•Homologous pairs, now much

shortened, separate except
where crossing over has
occurred (chiasmata).
•Sometimes chiasmata appear
to move towards the ends of the
chromatids (terminalization);
•at least one chiasma forms
between each homologous pair
and up to five have been
observed
• In human ovaries, primary
oöcytes become diplotene by
the fifth month in utero and
each remains in this stage until
the period prior to its ovulation
Diakinesis
MODEL: 25/G
•Remaining chiasmata finally
resolve and the
chromosomes, still as
bivalents, become even
shorter and thicker;
• they disperse, as bivalents,
to lie against the nuclear
envelope.

•During prophase the nucleoli

have disappeared and the
spindle and asters have
formed as in mitosis.
•At the end of prophase the
nuclear envelope disappears
and bivalent chromosomes
move towards the equatorial
plate (prometaphase)
•After diakinesis the paired
chromatids of a given
chromosome adhere to each MODEL: 25/H
other more strongly than
those of homologous
chromosomes,
•METAPHASE I resembles
mitotic metaphase except
that the bodies attaching to
the spindle microtubules are
bivalents, not single
chromosomes.
•These become arranged so
that the homologous pairs lie
parallel to the equatorial plate
with one member on either
side.
•Two haploid cells form
which enter the second cell
division
•ANAPHASE I

• also occur as in mitosis, MODEL: 25/I

except that in anaphase the
centromeres do not split;
•thus, instead of the paired
chromatids separating to move
towards the poles, whole
homologous chromosomes
made up of two joined
chromatids depart to opposite
poles.

•Since positioning of bivalent

pairs is random, assortment of
maternal and paternal
chromosomes in each
telophase nucleus is also
random.
 TELOPHASE I

Chromosomes (Haploid) are seen

to be grouped together at
the two poles.

Nuclear membrane reappears.

•Cytoplasmic division occurs
to produce two new
daughter cells, having
haploid number of
chromosome with haploid
DNA.

•Each of the daughter cells

will further undergo 2nd
Meiotic division.
 MEIOSIS II
MODEL: 25/J
•Meiosis II commences after
only a short interval during
which no DNA synthesis
occurs.
•This second division is more
like mitosis, with splitting of
centromere and separation of
chromatids during anaphase;
• but in contrast to mitosis, the
separating chromatids are
genetically dissimilar.
•Cytoplasmic division also
occurs.
• thus four cells result from
meiosis I and II.
•In females, One ovum and
•2-3 polar bodies
•are produced.
In case of males also MODEL: 25/K
cytoplasmic division
occurs to produce
four cells (spermatids)
at the end of meiosis I
and II.
Each of the spermatid
will have haploid(23)
chromosomes with
1nDNA.
SPERMATIDS
Sperms with haploid MODEL: 25/L
number of chromosomes
(22 autosomes+ y
chromosomes with
1nDNA)
HEAD

NECK

BODY

TAIL
FERTILIZATION

MODEL NO. 32
 Model: 32/ 1/6

Fusion of cell
membranes
of the sperm
and oocyte
 Model: 32/ 2/6

Head of sperm has

entered the ovum
The centriole of
the ovum has
started dividing
and forming aster
The nucleus of
ovum is now the
female pronucleus
 Model: 32/ 3/6

The nucleus of the

sperm is forming
the male
pronucleus
The centriole has
divided and the
two parts are
separating
 Model: 32/ 4/6

The male
pronucleus is
formed
Female
pronucleus
Spindle
formation
occurs from the
centrioles.
 Model: 32/ 5/6

The two pronuclei are

fuse to form a diploid
fertilized cell with
half maternal and half
paternal
chromosomes.
Thus the diploid(46)
number of
chromosomes is
regained.
 Model: 32/ 6/6

The
chromosomes of
the zygote then
arrange at the
equator of the
metaphase
spindle will
further undergo
mitotic division.