TOPIC 1

CELL
 This chapter covers the following syllabus
content:

B2.3.1 Production of unspecialized cells

following fertilization and their
B2.3 development into specialized cells by
differentiation
CELL B2.3.2 Properties of stem cells
SPECIALIZATION B2.3.3 Location and function of stem cell
niches in adult humans
B2.3.4 Dierences between totipotent,
pluripotent and multipotent stem cells
B2.3.5 Cell size as an aspect of
specialization
B2.3.6 Surface area-to-volume ratios and
constraints on cell size
 TOK

There are ethical implications of stem cell

researches

Embryonic stem cell research poses a moral

dilemma. It forces us to choose between two
moral principles:
The duty to prevent or alleviate suffering
The duty to respect the value of human life
Guiding questions

 What are the roles of stem cells in

multicellular organizations?

 • How are differentiated cells adapted

to their specialized funct ions
In multicellular organisms different cells have
different functions.

Although all cells in a multicellular organism have

the same set of genes, the expression of some
genes and not others causes cell differentiation.
There are approximately 25.000 genes in the human
genom, however in most of cell types less then half
of the genes are used.

A group of cells, that specialize in the same way to

perform the same function, called a TISSUE.
Multicellular organisms begin life as a single cell
called a zygote
It grows and divides, at first producing unspecialized
cells and then forming many specialized cells.
These specialized cells eventually form the adult
organism
In an early-stage embryo, the cells are unspecialized.
As an embryo grows, its cells develop along different
pathways and become specialized for specific
functions.
The development of cells
in different ways to carry
out specific functions is
called differentiation.

In humans, there are 220

distinctively different
highly specialized cell
types, all of which develop
by differentiation
The differentiation process is the result of the
expression of some genes but not others
Each body cell contains all the genetic information
needed to produce a complete organism.
However, each cell will develop in a very specific
manner depending on which gene become active.
What causes some gene to become active depends on
the signals that the cell receives.

Morphogens are signal molecules that

control cell differentiation. The
gradient of this signaling molecules
results in different genes being
expressed in different parts of the
embryo with the result of different
features.
STEM CELLS
 STEM CELLS
The capacity of stem cells
to divide and
differentiate along
different pathways is
necessary in embryonic
development.

It also makes them

suitable for therapeutic
uses.
 STEM CELLS

SC have two key

properties :
 They can divide again
and again to produce
copious of new cells.
 They can differentiate
in different ways to
produce many cell
types
 STEM CELLS
There are three types of SCs:
 Embrionic SC
 Cord Blood SC
 Adult SC
 STEM CELLS
Embryonic stem cells
• They are derived from an embryo about 4– 5 days
old (blastocyst).
• These cells have the ability to differentiate into all
of the cell types that make up an organism.
• They are said to be
pluripotent ( which can
make all cell types)
• Called embryonic when
they self re-new in the lab
 STEM CELLS
Cord blood SC
Cord blood contains cells called
hematopoietic stem cells.
These cells can turn into any
kind of blood cell and can be
used for transplants that can
cure diseases such as blood
disorders, immune deficiencies,
metabolic diseases, and some
kinds of cancers.
STEM CELLS
Adult (tissue) stem cells

• They are found in small

numbers in the tissues and
organs of adults and children,
including the brain, bone
marrow, skeletal muscle and
skin.
STEM CELLS
Adult (tissue) stem cells

• These cells give rise to a much

more limited range of cell types
and they replenish differentiated
cells that the tissues in which
they are found.

* They are said to be multipotent

( can only make cell types in a
particular tissue )
STEM CELLS
 STEM CELLS
Stem cells can replace damaged or diseased cells with
healthy ones
 CELL SIZE AND SPECIALIZATION
The function of a cell determines how large the cell must
be.
 MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES
Male and female gametes in
humans are very different in size.
The egg cell is around 100 µm,
whereas the sperm is 50 µm .

The larger cell body of the egg

allows it to store nutrients for the
early development of the fertilized
egg, whereas the sperm only
contributes with the nucleus
 BLOOD CELLS
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are around 8µm, much
smaller than white blood cells (which are around 12-17µm).

Red blood cells need to be small so that they can fit

through the small lumen of capillaries to carry oxygen.
 NEURONS
Neurons (nerve cells) transmit electrochemical
impulses through the body, allowing coordination and
response to stimuli to occur. They differ in length.
 STRIATED MUSCLE FIBRES
Striated muscle fibres are larger than normal cells, with a
diameter of 20µm to 100µm and lengths that can exceed
100mm (100,000µm). These dimensions allow the fibre to
exert greater force and contract by a greater length than
smaller muscle cells.
 SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIOS AND
THE CONSTRAINTS ON CELL SIZE

Many chemical reactions take

place in the cytoplasm of cells
(metabolism). The rate of
these reactions (the
metabolic rate of the cell) is
proportional to the volume of
the cell.
SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIOS AND
THE CONSTRAINTS ON CELL SIZE

For metabolism to continue,

substances used in the
reactions must be taken in the
cell and waste products must be
removed.
Substances move into and out of
cells through the plasma
membrane at the surface of the
cell.
SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIOS AND
THE CONSTRAINTS ON CELL SIZE
As cells grow and increase
in size, the volume
increases faster than the
surface area;
the surface area-to-volume
ratio falls:

surface area (mm²)

volume (mm³)
SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIOS AND
THE CONSTRAINTS ON CELL SIZE

So, with increasing

size of cell, less and
less of the cytoplasm
has access to the cell
surface for exchange
of nutrients and
wastes
 HOMEWORK

1. Read and do the instructions in

blue boxes on pages
257,258,260,261,264

2. Do the inquiry 2 on page 263

and tool 3 math.

3. Do the inquiry on page 264