INTRODUCTION TO CIVICS

AND ETHICAL STUDIES

Tilahun Tadesse
2010 E.C.
CHAPTER ONE

UNDERSTANDING CIVICS AND ETHICS

Definition of Civics and Ethics
Definition of civics:
The word civics comes from Latin word Civitas, which
means citizens.
Civics has many working definitions. such as:
a) Civics is a branch of social science which deals with
the rights and duties of citizens:
you can understand that civics teaches you about your
citizenship rights and duties or obligations to perform
or fulfill.
Cont.

It studies about:-
B) ) It is the intensive study and understanding of political institutions
such as; law making institutions, executive bodies, political practices and
etc:
It studies, for instance, executive body; its organization,
powers and functions.
It is also referring to self-government, which implies
active participation of and involvement of members .
Cont.
C) the theory and practices of free and
open democratic society.
This means the civics studies the values commitments
and assumptions of democracy; it studies challenges of
democracy; and history of democracy.
D) -purpose of government,
-the nature of the law and
-the way the private behavior affects the public
order and political systems.
what is the purpose of government? Why do we need
government? What is the nature of law? Is the law
equally serving all citizens in the country? Or is it only
the instrument of the rulers? to answer such questions
Cont.
E) the socio-economic political conditions of a country and the world.
understandable that civics studies the social economic
and political conditions operating in the world.
Most the definitions concerned about
 Definition of Ethics:

It is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about ------

morality.
Latin word Ethos which refers to customs and norms of society that
has to be respected by every individuals.
Morality also sets out norms and customary rules to
judge the actions, intentions of individuals
and groups in the society.
-It is something which is set by certain
community or society.
In every society there are standards that serve as ‘litmus test to
distinguish’ “moral person” from “immoral one”.
-Moral persons are praised, rewarded and
privileged.
- Immoral ones condemned or rejected.
Cont.
These ideals of the ethos demand immediate and unquestionable
obedience because they are respected values of society.
Ethics, however, is not guided by values that are not rationally justified.
Thus, ethics is not about unquestionable obedience; rather it is a matter
of basing ethical values in rational arguments.
Questions

1.What actions are right or wrong?

2.What things are good or bad?
3.What ought to be done and what ought not
to be done?
4.What is justice and injustice?
Origin and Development of Civics and Ethics
The idea of civic and ethical education was rooted
back to the ancient Philosophers such as; Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle in Greece and Confucius in China.
The idea was informally started in Athens, Greece.
For instance :- The education system in Athens was
aimed at the development of responsible citizens.
:-until the coming of the renaissance period, ancient
Rome during the medieval period citizenship and character education
was given as part of religious education.
Then, religion and government separated and eventually, this led to the
separation of civic education from religious educations.
Cont.

The period of renaissance resulted:-

- Revolution in Europe and America.
Particularly, these revolutions took place
- Britain Revolution in 1688,
- the American Revolution in 1776,
- the French revolution in 1789
which had helped for the emergence of modern democratic concepts.
This In turn, helped for the growth of modern civic education.
The idea of liberty, democracy and constitutionalism has risen to global prominence in
the 1990’s;
-many countries recognized that schools must teach young
 citizens both the theory and practice of constitutional democracy.
The other main international development which adds to the emergence of modern
civic education was the meeting which is held in Prague, Czech Republic in 1995,
which emphasized the importance of civic and ethical education in the school
curriculum.
 Development of Civic Education in Ethiopia
a) Emperor Haile Selassie I.
Civic education which was known by the name Gibregeb
The objective was telling students about the glory of the
emperor, his unlimited power and his hereditary rights.
b) The Dergue
Political education (They call it Yepolotica timihirt)
The aim was indoctrination, acceptance of an ideology
centered upon socialism.
c) The present day
includes democratic practices
 The Relation of civic with other social science fields

Sources of civics and ethics

It is an interdisciplinary subject--it borrows its important contents and
methods from different fields of studies.
Theoretical and Documentary sources
Theoretical :- to learn civic education comprise the different fields of
studies in social sciences. These include philosophy, political science,
sociology, economics, law, geography and history.
E.g. 1) Civics studies about wrong and right “bad and good”
“justice and fairness” and morality in general. This is related to
the study of philosophy.
2) civics studies about family, ethnic groups and society, as well as
cultures, values and norms of the society. These are the topics that civics shares
with sociology.
3) Civics deals with constitutions, legal rights and duties of citizens;
thus related with law.
Cont.
4 ) As civics studies state structure, purpose and nature of governments, we can say it is
related with political science.
5) As it also studies human experience at different times, in relation with growth and
development on the government and system in the past, it is related to History.

Documentary:-
Some of the most important documentary sources include :
both written and unwritten Constitution,
International Human Rights Charters and the Charters of Global and Regional Organizations.
E.g. - The 1948 UDHR. It deals with those inherent and inalienable rights that belong to all
people without any distinction what so ever.
- The 1989 Convention on the Right of the Child (CRC) is also one
international instrument, which is related to the rights of persons under the
age of eighteen.
- The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEADAW) 1979 is also one international instrument;

Decisions and enactments of legal bodies, historical sources, films and photographs.
Goals of civics education
To produce good citizens: knows and
exercises his rights and discharges his
obligations
Cont.

Patriotism

tolerance

Civility
( politeness ),
etc.
Cont.

• To promote fundamental values and principles required

Dem
ocrati
for competent and responsible citizenship.
c • Developing democratic outlooks
citize
ns

• Developing a feeling of patriotism and national character

Patrio • Citizens should be ready to sacrifice their everything to
tic protect their country.
feelin
g

• Providing citizens the knowledge to monitor and influence

Politi government rules, decisions and actions that significantly affect
cal individual rights.
consc • participatory political culture.
iousn
ess
Three Types of Political Culture

• means participation limited to local areas

• citizens have no strong linkage or association
Parochial: with central government
• Citizens are not concerned about the decisions
of the central national government

• Citizens see themselves as a subject of

government rather than participant in
political process.
Subjective: • Passive relationship to the political
system
• Doer (Government) – Receiver (citizens)
relationship

• citizens see themselves as active

participant in the political
Participatory: system.
• awareness of political system
 Competence of Good Citizens
Good citizenship needs qualifications beyond mere membership to a
country.
There are minimum competences that are required from citizens. These are:-
 Civic Knowledge
 Civic Skills
 Civic Attitudes

Civic Knowledge:
information and awareness about the social, cultural, political, environmental,
historical, and economic conditions and realities of the past and the present and also the
challenge and prospects ahead of the country.
Citizens need to know their country, its people, history, culture, resources and the like.
Civic Attitudes:
Civic attitude or orientation will develop citizens acquired civic knowledge.
E.g. Tolerance, Open-mindedness, Loyalty, Virtuousness …
Civic Skills:-
 Involves skills of decision making, communication, conflict resolutions
compromise, persuasions, creativity , etc.
Group discussion point

What is the differences and

similarities between
state , society and government?
CHAPTER TWO

UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY, STATE AND

GOVERNMENT; ETHIOPIAN FOCUS
Society:
- collective existence of human beings
- in various forms of organization and associations
over a period of time in a defined place
- cooperative activities
A group of people can be termed as a society when its members fulfill the
following:-
a - live together for a long period of time
b- possess common values and interests
c- share common culture, traditions and life styles.
d- different groups of people sharing common values
There are contending view
the atomistic theory and organic theory:

Atomistic theory: based upon an individualistic conception of the society.

Society is a human artifacts constricted by individual to serve their purpose.
: It implies that society is nothing more than a collection of
individual units or atoms.
Organic theory: more normally associated with living
organism human being or plant.
: society is a complex network of relationship which
ultimately exists to maintain the whole;
: the whole is more important than its individual parts.
A large number of communities that have social, cultural, and
economic interactions constitute a society.
 State is located within a larger system of human society.
State

Politically organized society/entity or political system.

If we take as a system, the state represents one of the sub-systems of the society called
political system.
It refers to all institutions, agencies and agents that operate within a given territorial
space, have legitimate power over us and can utilize its power.
States can be classified into traditional and modern states
Traditional:
 those empire states which had vast territory and population under their rules.
did not exactly know the boundaries.
did not have exclusive control over the citizens.
The birth of modern states traced back to 17th century Europe most states of the
present Europe are born from the collapse of the European Empires.
In Africa the present states, with exception of Ethiopia and Liberia are the
results of decolonization processes .
Elements of Modern state

There are five elements of modern states. These are:-

a) Population
b) Territory
c) Government
d) Sovereignty
e) Recognition
 Theories on the Origin and Development of States
a) The Natural or Evolutionary Theory
 sometimes named as Genetic theory
 It claims that the state gradually evolved from out of earlier forms of
settled human communities, such as the family, the clan and the tribe.
 state is the product of the natural or gradual expansion of the family.
is the oldest theory
lost its ability to explain the complex phenomenon of the rise and
function of the state.
b) The Divine Right Theory
 state to be of a divine creation.
 the state is considered as an institution created by God.
 rulers were regard as the representatives or vice reagents of God on the
earth.
It is the will of God that in human society some are born to rule while
others are born to be ruled.
There is hereditary succession of authority of the rulers who should be
held responsible for and accountable to God only, not to people.
Cont.

The rulers take society considered as subjects, not citizens.

E.g. 1. Feudal emperors in Europe during the middle ages.
2. Haile Selassie’s government.
In short, the point here is that the will of God is the source for
creation of state and authority of the rulers.
c) The Social Contract Theory
This theory argued that state is an artificial creation based on the
contract or agreement among the people at large.
argument was the doctrine of popular sovereignty.
the source for establishment of the state is the consent (will) of the
people.
the main purpose of such state is to protect and safeguard the
inalienable rights of the people such as the right to life, liberty, and
property.
Cont.
The social contract theory was further developed revolutions in
the fight against the rule of non-democratic systems in general
and against absolute monarchies in particular.
advocated popular sovereignty.
limited government and individual rights
Its exponents were the British political thinkers like Thomas
Hobbes (1588-1679) and John Locke (1632-1704), and the French
thinkers Jean – Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). They were great
thinkers who contributed much to the development of
contemporary democratic political system.
d) The Force or Conquest Theory
According to this theory associates the emergence of the state to
wars and conflicts
the state is the result of naked force applied by the stronger over
the weak.
Cont.
The establishment of the state is done through the process of
conquest, subjugation and coercion of the week by the strong.
In other words “might (force) make right” lies the ground for
establishment of state in this theory.
e) The Marxist Theory
state emerges due to intra-societal war carried out between classes.
Karl Marx popularized this view by analyzing the state as an
agency of class which the capitalist classes control the working
classes.
state was originated from the split of society into social classes
with sharp and polarized economic interests.
The formation of social classes is associated with the emergence
of private property.
state in its function is a partisan political organization that stands
for the interests of the rich against the poor.
Cont.
Consequently,
the supporters of this theory suggest that with the historical process of
disappearance of private property and antagonistic social classes,
the state will wither away and a classless society should be established
within which everybody will be equal and all have whatever they want.
STRUCTURES OF STATE
1) The Unitary structure
 the nature of political power is highly centralized at the centre up on
the national government.
 National government is the central unit
 constitutionally all political powers are usually centralized
 to carry out all administrative affairs on the behalf of the state.
 there is only one source of creation and power and authority for
regional governments, that is the central government.
 no authorities and powers left to local units.
 from the center most policies and decisions are shaped and sent down
to local units.
 local/regional units have no independent decision making power and
authority at least for some particular matters of their own.
 local/regional units is just to serve as an administrative agent of the
central government
Cont.
The existence of the local units in unitary states is dependent up on the will of
the central government.
Some major advantageous parts of the unitary state structure include:
It plays a great role in uniformity of decisions, political activities and services;
Uniformity of laws, rules and policies and
Emphasizes on equal access to public services and resources for all units; etc.
Some of the weaknesses of the unitary state structure are:
Effective administration may be difficult;
Doesn’t encourage participation at the grass root levels;
Not effective in managing economic and cultural diversities;
Inter-regional competition may not be encouraged;
Due to centralization of power at the centre there may be misuse of power…etc.
2) The Federal structure

Constitutional decentralization of power from the centre to the

regional governments(i.e. devolution (delegation, transference..)of
power.
The centre and regions have certain independent spheres of
authority to make decisions independently of each other.
Unlike the unitary, the source of creation and powers of both the federal
(national or central) government and of the regions are the constitution.
 There are two levels or tiers of government
 The federal
 Regional
 Two constitutions simultaneously
 The federal constitution
 The regional constitution
Since the source of establishment and the power and authority of
both is the constitution.
Cont.
Unlike the Unitary,
There is no a sort of superior – subordinated relationship between
them rather a kind of collaborative (cooperative) relationship
decentralizing state power from the centre to regional/local units…………
devolution.
The following are some sets of powers in a federal arrangement of state.
1. Exclusive power
 The federal and regional governments perform tasks independently each
other
2.Concurrent power
 common power granted to both governments
 together cooperatively
3. Residual power
 all powers out of the jurisdiction of the federal government
 are not explicitly stated in a constitution
 usually granted to the regional governments
Cont.
Some major Advantages of Federal State are:
 Its ability to manage diversity
 applicable to multi ethnic Societies
 Reflects the interest of the people in the local
areas because they are authorized to make
decision for themselves
 It enables to manage large territory and
population
 Healthy competition among regional units
Cont.
Some of the disadvantageous parts of federal form of
state include:
possibility of conflict of jurisdiction between the federal and
regional
because of duplication of power between the two levels
It requires educated man power
cause lack of uniformity in decision making
Examples for the federal form are Ethiopia (after 1991),
Nigeria, USA, Switzerland, Germany and etc.
Understanding Government

State is an abstract entity.

The major part of the state system without which state cannot
exist is the government.
It implements the will of the people on behalf of the state.
government is the administrative machinery or agency of state
Intangibility (invisibility) of the state in to a concrete reality.
It is held responsible to carry out the day-to-day affairs of state.
Political organ that coordinates the routine activities of the state
& maintains law and order.
government is an organization, institution…of state.
Forms of Government

1. The Parliamentary form of government

 there is fusion, integration or overlap of political power and
authority
 members of the government have two roles at the same
time in parliamentary government.
 the executive authority emerges from the legislative body
 They are not only ministers as members of the executive but also are
members of the legislature.
 the executive is directly responsible to the legislature.
 law making body of government but they are indirectly responsible to the
people.
 the executive’s functions nearly on the day-to-day basis.
 Head of government is occupied by the prime minister (premier or
chancellor)
 the decisions are made in group.
 the Head of State is the president
Cont.
2. The Presidential form of Government

It is based on Montesque’s theory of separation of power.

This theory suggests that branches of government should separate
from each other & function independently.
the president alone passes executive decisions though he is
consulted by his ministers.
The Head of the Government, the president dominates the cabinet
completely.

3. The Hybrid form of government

The hybrid is the semi-presidential and semi-parliamentary.
half-presidential and half-parliamentary form of government
it is not purely the presidential and not purely the parliamentarian.
Cont.
members of the legislature, directly elected by the people in
such states as France.
The elected powerful president is in return given the authority
to appoint the prime minister.
The prime minister nominates other ministries up on the
recommendation from the powerful president from outside of
the parliament.
The installed cabinet is responsible to the parliament (national
assembly)
The powerful president is given the authority to dissolve the
parliament & call up on a new election.
He may also dismiss the prime minister at will.
Most Latin American states have adopted such form of
democratic government.
 The Difference between State and Government

State wider/broa an Power permanent All state

der entity abstract primary and across the
including entity and original independent world is
all citizens Power institution. made up of
absolute their five
and essential
unrestricted elements

Government smaller unit existence the authority changeable different

covering only in a delegated or dynamic; forms such
those that are concrete and limited one party is as monarchy,
employed to form by the changed by aristocracy,
perform its provisions another new oligarchy,
functions. of the party. democracy,
constitution dictatorship
etc.;
 CHAPTER THREE

Understanding citizenship; Ethiopian focus

The Conceptual Framework and Historical
Development.
The idea of Citizenship was developed in the cities of ancient
Greece and Rome about 700 B.C.
Greek laws and traditions gave citizenship to certain parts of
the community.
Citizenship is still governed by a state.
International law simply recognizes the right to determine
under its own laws who its national citizens.
Group discussion Points

1. How an individual acquires

Ethiopian citizenship?
2. What are the modes of acquiring
citizenship?
As was emphasized in article 1
of the 1930 Hague Convention
on the Conflict of Nationality
Laws
Citizen
the word citizen is derived from a Latin word “Civis” means
city resident,
The origin of the term is associated with ancient Greek city
states whose full members were known as citizens.
Citizen is legally recognized
member of a state.
is legal status or official identification of individual to be integrated
in to a state.
It is a contractual relationship between state and citizens.
Ways of Acquiring and Loosing

What are the Major Ways of

Acquiring citizenship?

Modes of citizenship are determined by the domestic law of

each country.
there are two methods of acquiring citizenship that most
countries of the world follow.
1. citizenship by birth, and 2. citizenship by naturalization
Cont.
1. Citizenship by Birth
A. Jus Sanguinis (Latin phrase )
blood whereby a child acquires citizenship of his/her
parents(descent or blood relationship, not the place of birth.)
i. Jus Sanguinis Materni : means blood line of mother,
E.g. followed by Israel
ii. Jus Sanguinis Paterni : means blood line of father,
E.g. followed by Bulgaria.
*Ethiopian follows legal parents’ blood principle (father or
mother or both) for historical make up.
Cont.
B. Jus Soli (Latin phrase ):
Soil right whereby a child attains citizenship from a birth state.
diplomatic missionaries and representatives not claim this
citizenship.
 1930 Hague Convention on Conflict of Nationality Laws,
 1961 Vienna Conventions on Diplomatic Protocols and
 1963 Vienna Consular Protocols of United Nations.
2. Citizenship by Naturalization
Is the process by which a state confers its citizenship on
immigrants/foreigners who meet specific requirements.
These requirements may be legal, economic, and/or political.
It is the process by which the citizen of one state becomes the
citizens of another state.
Cont.
Any process by which a state confers its citizens upon a person
after a birth is called naturalization.
Naturalization takes place when a person wants and decides to
change his/her previous nationality/citizenship, which he/she
acquired by birth.
In Ethiopia a foreign who fulfills the conditions set under the
Nationality proclamations can acquire Ethiopian citizenship.
There is no universal and uniform naturalization law in the
world.
Each state possesses a sovereign right to admit or not to
admit a foreign into its territory.
Similarly, each state has a sovereign right to grant or not its
citizenship to a foreigner.
Cont.
A. Citizenship by Registration
i. Marriage: if a woman marries a man of another state, she can have her
husband’s citizenship. This is considered as defacto or Apparent
Nationality.
ii. Legitimation : an illegitimate child gets citizenship of his/her
care taker.
iii. Option: a multi-citizenship person chooses citizenship of one
selected state.
iv. Acquisition of Domicile: this is through permanent residence
in a certain country.
V. Appointment as Government Official: is acquired by serving
as a worker in a defined state.
Cont.
vi. Grant on Application: this is acquired based on specific rules
and principles.
B. Citizenship by Political Case or Process
i. By Force: occupied state individuals are forced to acquire
conquering state citizenship.
ii. By Voluntary Process (Cession ): due to willful merger
of one state with another state, people of state which decided to
join another state will get citizenship of that state.
E. g. -People of Louisiana decided to join USA in1803 from
France.
- Saar valley voted through plebiscites to join Germany in
1934-35.
Cont.
C. Citizenship by Re-integration/Restoration: this is a system whereby a
person who had lost citizenship of a state due to certain reasons can get
back citizenship on fulfilling conditions laid down.
D. Citizenship by Option: this takes place due to voluntary partitions or
exchange of territories.
- In such cases, residents are given the option to choose the citizenship of
one of the two states.
E. Citizenship by Legislation: a state can grant honorary citizenship to
prominent figures.
F. Citizenship by Special Case/Functional Nationality: this is a possibility
whereby citizenship is given without undergoing all legal procedures.

*When a person has citizenship status of two countries at a time, it is known as dual
citizenship. One can be acquired by birth place (Jus soli) and the other by blood line
(Jus Sanguinis) or through naturalization.
 Ways of Loosing Citizenship

I. Renunciation (Expatriation): this happens either when a person gives

up previous citizenship because of being naturalized in another country or
harassment and state ideologies personal dislikes.
II. Deprivation: this takes place when a person commits serious crimes
against the state.
E.g. Exposing the secrets of his own country to alien forces.
. siding enemy forces in times of war
III. Substitution: this happens if naturalization substitutes original
citizenship.
IV. Lapse: this takes place as result of long and continuous stay outside one’s
own state.
E.g. If an Indian stays outside his country for more than seven years, he will
lose Indian citizenship.
Statelessness
is lack of citizenship or a person is not a citizen/national of any country.
-the homeland of a person denies him/her citizenship as punishment,
e.g. by expatriating.
-a person renounces citizenship of his/her country but does not acquire
another citizenship.
-a child is born from alien parents without being citizen of a country that
does not recognize jus soli.
-the laws of some countries pertaining to marriage do not give
citizenship right.
-a person’s homeland has been destroyed by another country.
Citizenship in Ethiopian Context
Prior to 1930, Children born to Ethiopians in Ethiopia were
considered Ethiopian simply by custom and tradition.
The first legal instrument in Ethiopia dealing with citizenship is
the Nationality Act of 22 July 1930.
This act emphasizes the principle of jus Sanguinis (the law of
blood or descent).
It says that “any parson born in Ethiopia, or abroad, whose
mother or father is Ethiopian as an Ethiopian subject”.
This means that any person born anywhere from Ethiopian
parents is an Ethiopian.
Here, the palace of birth is immaterial.
The nationality act of 1930 was repealed by proclamation
No. 378/2003 called Ethiopian Nationality proclamation.
Just like the 1930 Nationality Act, the present Nationality
proclamation adopts the rule of jus sanguinis. The
constitution and under article 6 …….
Naturalization……. under Article 5 of the proclamation….
Article 19 of the proclamation: Renunciation of
Ethiopian Nationality
Article 20 of the proclamation : Loss of Ethiopian
Nationalities upon Acquisition of Others
Approaches of citizenship

Definitions of what it entails to be a citizen vary significantly across

national contexts.
domestic laws about who is a citizen vary from state to state.
Western conceptions of citizenship have evolved from, and continue to
be framed by the two great “citizenship traditions”, namely :-
1-the republican and
2-liberal approaches to citizenship.
The liberal theory is minimalist.
Liberalism puts a strong emphasis on the individual as an autonomous
social actor, and consequently liberal rights mostly reflect individual
liberties.
Cont.
It purports that the role of the state is to protect the freedom of
its citizens, especially by protecting the right to property and by
removing obstacles to free exchange between individuals in the
market place.
liberties and do not imply collective responsibilities and
participation
In contrast, republican conceptions of citizenship maintain
that citizenship must involve rights and practices of political
participation to achieve the common good: they stress an active
and more practice-oriented conception of citizenship .
Republican theories put emphasis on both individual and rights
and collective responsibility.
These traditions have in turn been elaborated over time in a
number of different approaches, including their communitarian
variations
Cont.
Communitarianism emphasizes the predominance of the community
(society, nation) over its members.
A primary concern of communitarian citizenship is a cohesive society
organized around a common set of values which community members
are expected to endorse.
Chapter 4
Constitution, Democracy and Human Rights; Ethiopian
focus
Meaning of Constitution and Constitutionalism
CHAPTER FIVE

ETHICS AND CIVIC VIRTUE

Ethics is a branch of philosophy which deals with morality.
Morality in turn refers to peoples beliefs about right and
wrong, good and bad, punishment and desert and so on.
The Origin and Development of Ethics
In the Medieval period
In Western Europe, ethics was developed by the Christian
church.
The non-western ethics was linked with the religious beliefs
of Buddhism, Confucius, Hinduism, and Islam.
Generally, Ethics was more or less tied with religion
Cont.
Even today, in tradition oriented societies ethics is usually a
part of religion, sanctioned by religious authority.
In the 16th c, due to
-the rise of Protestantism and
-other secular developments
religion started to leave its place for science which based its
theory on reasoning and rationalism .
Thomas Hobbes was the first scholar. According to his,
‘nothing is good in itself: rather a thing is good or evil when it
is desired or shunned by someone. ‘
Cont.
John Locke accepted ‘Hobbes’ theory of value.
Locke equated good with pleasure and evil with pain.
If someone is satisfied with what he is doing then that thing is
good.
But if someone feels pain in what he is doing or what happened
to him then that is considered as evil or bad.
The modern philosophers and thinkers tried to establish ethical
code on the basis of rationalism and intellectual thinking rather
than belief and faith.
Another philosopher Benedict Espinoza :maintained that all
knowledge
According to them a good man is a rational man.
He defined well in terms of usefulness.
Man does everything for an end.
Ethical School of Thoughts
1.Ethical Objectivism (universalism):- (other worldly view)
Moral values are absolute/ eternal so that they are not changed
and apply to all rational creatures.
they are applied to all rational creatures around the world and
throughout time.
In medieval period moral principles were grouped under eternal
law and related with divine commands.
i.e. God informs human beings about moral principles.
E.g. Plato in the classical period compared it with mathematical concepts.
2. Ethical Relativism (subjectivism):- (other worldly view)
Moral values are strictly human invention.
This view also denies the absolute and universal nature of
morality.
i.e. morality changes from society to society throughout time and
throughout the world.
Cont.
Two types of relativism:
Cultural relativism - it says morality is grounded in the approval of
one’s culture.
Individual relativism - it says individual people create their own
moral standards.
Branches of Ethics
Ethics can be divided into three fields, namely;
1.Normative ethics
2. Meta ethics
3. Applied ethics
1. Normative Ethics
 attempt to explain and justify positions on specific moral
problems, such as:
 sex outside marriage, capital punishment, euthanasia….
Cont.
principles in an attempt to resolve specific moral problems:
E.g. in defending an act of civil disobedience, a person
might appeal to principles of justice and equality.
It attempts to determine precisely what moral standards to
follow so that our actions may be morally right or good.
It identifies actions that fall either under the category of right
or wrong.
It gives us directions or practical guidelines or norms,
in our interactions with others such as: ” do not lie” “do not
harm” “ don’t steal” etc. or regarding which actions are
right and which are wrong.
Cont.
2. Meta-Ethics (Analytical ethics)
Meta ethics is also a branch of ethics which deals with:
the nature or characteristics of ethics
the origin and meaning of ethical concepts clarifying the
- meaning of ethical questions,
- theories provided as answers to these questions,
- linguistic definition and interpretation of ethical
concepts, and
- analyzing, justifying and validating moral judgments.
There are two issues under Meta ethics: Metaphysical issues and
psychological issues.
A. Metaphysical issues
it is the study of the kinds of things that exist in the universe.
The universe is made up of physical stuff (like rock...) and non- physical
stuff (thought, spirit...).
Cont.
B. Psychological issues
 The psychological basis of our moral judgment and conduct,
particularly understanding what motivates us to be moral.
 These include; avoiding punishment, gaining praise, attaining
happiness.
i-Egoism and Altruism:
Psychological egoism :it says many of our actions are encouraged by selfish
desire :-self - oriented interests motivate all human actions
Psychological hedonism:-it is closely related with psychological egoism.
 It says pleasure is the specific driving force behind all our actions.
Psychological altruism(self-sacrifice):- at least some of our actions are
motivated by instinctive benevolence.
ii-Emotion and Reason:
Emotive theories- moral assessments involve our emotions not our
reasons/expression of personal feelings.
Cont.
Rational theories- it is propagated by rationally minded philosophers.
-It says true moral action is motivated only by reason
3. Applied Ethics
It is a branch of ethics that attempts to apply moral theories to specific moral
problems.
E.g. of moral issues that are treated by applied ethics includes;
abortion, capital punishment, euthanasia, animal rights and suicide.
It is difficult to decide this issues as wrong or right because of
divided public opinion.
Major Ethical Theories
1- Virtue Ethics Theory
Stresses the importance of developing good habits of character
Virtue theory emphasizes moral education since virtuous character traits
are developed in one’s youth.
Cont.
2. Duty (deontology) theory
although the consequence of an act is good, some acts are
always wrong.
actions are judged as ethical or unethical based on duty or the
intentions of an actor.
The most important defender of deontological ethics is
Immanuel Kant.
Major duty theories include:
A. The theory of Samuel Pufendorf: this theory has three headings.
Duties to God- The duty to know the existence/nature of God and the duty to
worship God
Duties towards oneself- duties of the soul (skill and talent) duties of the body
(not harming oneself)
Duties towards other- Avoid harming others - Promote the good of others,
Treat peoples as equal and Keeping promise.
Cont.
B. Rights theory: It is one type of duty theories that propagates the
rights of the person should not be harmed by another person.
There are four features traditionally associated with moral rights:
• Natural: not created by government
• Universal: do not change from country to country
• Equal: the same for all people
• Inalienable : nobody can handover his/her rights to another person
C. Emanuel Kant’s categorical imperative:
he agreed that we have moral duties to ourselves and others.
But Kant argued that there is a more fundamental principle of duty that
encompasses our particular duties.
D) Ross’ theory of ‘Prima Facie duties’:
Ross believes that his list of duties reflects our actual moral
convictions.
Ross also identified that situations force us to choose between
two conflicting duties.
Cont.

3. Consequentialist / Teleological/ theory of ethics

• Greek word "Telos" which means result, goal and consequence.
• According to cosequntialist ethical theory, the morality of an
action is solely determined by the consequence it brings.
• This theory is based on the motto of "The end justifies the
means".
Cont.

Controversial Issues in Applied Ethics

Many controversial issues discussed by ethicists today are ;
Biomedical Ethics- parental issues, patient rights and the physicians’
responsibilities, medical experimentation on humans, end of life issues
etc.
Business Ethics- the moral status of corporate entities, deceptive
advertising, basic employee rights, job discrimination etc.
Environmental ethics- the rights of animals, preserving endangered
species, pollution control, management of environment resources etc.
Sexual Morality- monogamy Vs polygamy, sexual relations without
love, homosexual relations ( lesbian and gay) etc.
Social Morality- capital punishment, nuclear war, gun control, the
recreational use of drugs etc.
Professional Ethics
Professional ethics, as part of applied Ethics, is concerned
with the moral obligations and other responsibilities expected
from office holders and professionals.
 It deals about the specific and general guide line that should
be followed and exhibited by every profession and office
holders.
Cont.

Attendance: arrive on time and give advance notice of absence

Character: displays loyalty, honesty, trustworthiness, dependability,
reliability, initiative, self discipline, and Self - responsibility
Team work : Respect the right of others; is a team worker and cooperative
Appearance: Displays appropriate dressings, grooming, hygiene and
etiquette
Attitude: demonstrate a positive attitude
Productivity : good work habits result in a good work product
Organizational skills: manifest skill in personal management, time
management, prioritizing, flexibility, stress management and the ability to
deal with change
Communication: displays appropriate verbal and non verbal skills
Cooperation: display leadership skills, maintain appropriate relationships
with supervisors and peers
Respect: dealing appropriately with diversity and treating everyone with
respect