Pharmaceutical Suspension

Pharmaceutical Suspensions
05/29/2024 1
Introduction
• Suspensions are heterogeneous systems containing two phases
• The internal (dispersed) phase
• Is made up of particulate matter, which is practically insoluble in the

external phase
• The external phase (continuous phase or dispersion medium)
• Generally a liquid (liquid suspensions) or
• Semisolid (gels)
• Most pharmaceutical suspensions consist of an aqueous dispersion medium
• organic or oily liquids (some times)

05/29/2024 2
Introduction…
• Depending on the ROA pharmaceutical suspensions can be

classified as;
– Oral suspensions
– Externally applied lotions
– Injectable preparations
• Suspensions are also available as aerosols
– Which can be applied topically on the skin or
– Internally by pulmonary route
05/29/2024 3
Introduction…
• Oral and parenteral suspensions, may be prepared as dry
powders for reconstitution with water prior to dispensing
• Topical suspensions can be;
– Liquid preparations
– Semisolid
• Parenteral preparations can be formulated in an oily vehicle
to sustain drug release
05/29/2024 4
Criteria for good suspension
• Suspended particle should not settle rapidly
• The particle which settle should not form cake
• Should redisperse uniformly in the continuous phase, upon
moderate shaking
• Should not be too viscous to pour
• In case of parenteral preparation;
• the suspension should follow out of the syringe……good
syringeability
05/29/2024 5
Criteria for good suspension…
• Suspended particles should be small and uniform in size
• Topical suspensions should be easy to apply, not run off and not dry
off too quickly
• It must have an acceptable colour and odour
• It should be physically, chemically and microbiologically stable.
• The suspended particle should not degrade too quickly or undergo

change in polymorphic form
05/29/2024 6
Advantage and disadvantage
Advantages of suspension DFs
– Efficient for delivering hydrophobic drugs
– Avoidance of the use of cosolvents
– Masking of unpleasant taste of certain ingredients
E.g Chloraphenicol suspension and Erythromycin Estolate susp.

– Offer resistance to degradation of drugs due to hydrolysis, oxidation
E.g Antibiotic suspension
05/29/2024 7
Advantage and disadvantage…
– Easy swallowing
– Efficient for IM depot therapy
– Compared to solution DFs, relatively higher concentration of drugs can be

incorporated into suspension products
– Compared to solid DFs provide high dissolution and absorption
• Solution > Suspension > Capsule > Compressed Tablet > Coated tablet
Disadvantages of suspension DFs

– The possibility of dose variation
– Requirement of large storage area
– Lack of elegance
05/29/2024 8
Interfacial Properties
• The solid phase remains as finely divided particles in the
dispersion medium
– Therefore, a large amount of interface is involved in the
formulation
– This affects the stability of suspension preparations
• The two most important interfacial properties include surface
free energy and surface potential
05/29/2024 9
Interfacial Properties…
Surface Free Energy
• The relation between the surface free energy and the surface area
can be expressed by;
Where
– ∆G is the increase in surface free energy
– ∆A is the increase in surface area, and
– γ is the interfacial tension between the solid particles and the
dispersion medium
05/29/2024 10
Interfacial
Properties…
• The smaller the ∆G is, the more thermodynamically stable is the

suspension
• A system with very fine particles is thermodynamically unstable
• The particles tends to flocculate (desirable)
• i.e. to form light, fluffy aggregates that are held together by

weak Vander waals forces
• The particles may also adhere by stronger forces to form what are
termed coagulation (caking-undesirable)
05/29/2024 11
Interfacial
Properties…
• Surface free energy can be reduced by;
1. Reducing interfacial tension

• When a wetting agent is added to the suspension formulation, it is
adsorbed at the interface
• Result in a reduction of the interfacial tension, making the
system more stable
2. Decreasing the interfacial area
• Flocculation or loose aggregation
05/29/2024 12
Interfacial
Properties…
Surface Potential
– Exists when dispersed solid particles in a suspension possess
charge in relation to their surrounding liquid medium
• Solid particles may become charged through different ways
– Selective adsorption of a particular ionic species
– Ionization of SAA which are already adsorbed at the
solid–liquid interface
05/29/2024 13
Interfacial
Properties…
– Ionization of functional group of the particles
• Peptide and protein molecules contain ionizable groups,
such as –COOH (Carboxylic acid group) and –NH2 (Amino
group)
• The sign and magnitude of the ionization mostly depend on
the pH of the surrounding vehicle
05/29/2024 14
Particle Surface Electrical double layer
-
I If the adsorbed species is an anion, surface is negatively
I
-
I charged
-
I o Anions are called potential determinig (co-ions)
-
I o Cations are called counter-ions (gegenions)
-
I
-
I
-
I
May 29, 2024 Phar 212 15

Distance from particle surface
• The part of the solvent immediately surrounding the particles
will almost entirely comprise of the counter-ions.
• This part of the solvent, along with these counter-ions is
tightly bound to the particle surface
It surrounding the
Stern layer
• Fig. Electric double layer at the solid–liquid medium interface in a disperse system
05/29/2024 16
tightly diffuse
bound
+ - + -
+ - + - +
- - + - electroneutral
+ - + + + +
+ - + - bulk
+ - - - -
+ + +
gegenion
zeta potential
Nernst potential
05/29/2024 17
• Electric neutrality occurs where the mobile diffuse layer ends
• Beyond the diffuse layer, the concentrations of co- and counter-

ions are equal
• The thickness of the double layer depends upon the type and
concentration of ions in solution
• The suspension, as a whole, is electrically neutral despite the
presence of unequal distribution of charges in the double layer
05/29/2024 18
Nernst and zeta potentials
Nernst Potential
• Known as surface or electrothermodynamic (E) potential
• Potential difference between the actual solid surface and the

electroneutral bulk
• It is controlled by the electrical potential at the surface of the
particle due to the potential determining ions
05/29/2024 19
Zeta Potential
• Known as the electrokinetic (Z) potential
• Potential difference between the tightly bound layer and the
bulk
• The magnitude of surface and zeta potentials is related to
the surface charge and the thickness of the double layer
05/29/2024 20
• Zeta potential governs the degree of repulsion between solid
particles
• If the zeta potential is reduced below a certain value

 the attractive forces between particles due to van der
Waals’ force, overcome the forces of repulsion and
 the particles come together to form aggregates
05/29/2024 21
DLVO Theory
• The precipitation of suspension can be brought about by adding
electrolytes;
• The precipitating power increase rapidly with the valence of the
ions.
• This is known as the Schulze-Hardy rule
• Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek worked independently
and used the knowledge from Schulze-Hardy rule to describe the
stability of lyophobic colloids
05/29/2024 22
DLVO Theory…
• According to this theory, the potential energy of interaction
between particles, VT is the result of repulsion due to electrical
double layer, VR and attraction due to van der Waals’ force, VA
05/29/2024 23
DLVO Theory…
• VR depends on several factors including;
• The zeta potential of the system
• The particle radius
• The interparticular distance
• The dielectric constant of the medium
• The factors that affect VA includes;

• The particle radius, and
• The interparticular distance
05/29/2024 24
DLVO Theory…
• The maximum repulsive value is known as the energy barrier

• In order to coagulation, two particles on a course of
collision must have sufficient momentum to cross this
barrier
• As the particles overcome the repulsion, they coagulate due
to van der Waals’ force
05/29/2024 25
05/29/2024 26
DLVO Theory…
• The primary minimum.

– This is a region of high attraction between particles
• The primary maximum.
– This region is responsible for the repulsion between particles,
the magnitude of which is controlled by the zeta potential at
the shear plane of the particles
• The secondary minimum
 is a region where attractive forces predominate
05/29/2024 27
DLVO Theory…
• The aggregation of solid particles in suspension systems
can be termed either as “flocculation” or “coagulation”
– Flocculation occurs at the secondary energy minimum
– Coagulation occurs at the primary energy minimum of
the potential energy curve of two interacting particles
05/29/2024 28
Sedimentation in suspensions
• Sedimentation velocity of the particles of a suspension is
given by Stoke’s law
• Where v (cm/sec) is the velocity of sedimentation
– d (cm) and r (cm) are the diameter and radius of the particle, respectively;
– ρ1 and ρ2 (g/cm3) are the densities of the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium, respectively;
– g is the acceleration due to gravity; and
– η (poise) is the viscosity of the dispersion medium
05/29/2024 29
Sedimentation in suspensions…
• Viscosity of the medium can be increased in order to reduce
settling
• Common viscosity-increasing agents are
– Cellulose derivatives (e.g., methylcellulose, NaCMC and
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose)
– Natural gums (e.g., acacia and tragacanth)
05/29/2024 30
• The difference in density b/n the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium can affect the rate of settling
• Since the density of the dispersed phase cannot be changed, it
would be necessary to increase the density of the medium
– by using some density modifiers e.g., sorbitol and
mannitol
05/29/2024 31
Limitation of stock’s law
• Stokes’ equation was derived for an ideal situation in which
uniform, perfectly spherical particles in a very dilute suspension
settle without;
• Producing turbulence
• Colliding with other particles of the dispersed phase, and
• Chemical or physical attraction or affinity for the dispersion
medium
05/29/2024 32
• Stokes’ equation does not apply precisely to the usual
pharmaceutical suspension in which;
• the dispersed particle is irregularly shaped and of various
particle diameters,
• the fall of the particles does result in both turbulence and
collision, and
• the particles may have some affinity for the suspension
medium
05/29/2024 33
• Dielectric constant is ignored in Stokes’ equation
– The electrical potential between two charges is

inversely proportional to the dielectric constant of the
medium.
– Therefore, Zeta potential is dependent on the dielectric
constant of the medium.
• Brownian movement is another factor that can influence
the accuracy of the results obtained in Stokes’ equation
05/29/2024 34
Flocculated/deflocculated suspensions
• A deflocculated system has a zeta potential higher than the
critical value and the repulsive forces supersede the
attractive forces
• Particles remains suspended for a long period of time
• Only a small portion of the solid is found in the sediment
due to the force of gravitation
• Deflocculated suspensions
05/29/2024 35
Flocculated/deflocculated suspensions …
• During sedimentation
– The smaller particles fill the void between the larger ones; and
– The particles lowest in the sediment are gradually pressed together
by the weight of the particles above
• These increase the closeness of the particles; and, thus, they are
attracted by a large amount of van der Waals force
• A closely-packed, hard cake-like residue is formed
05/29/2024 36
• Upon the addition of a small amount of electrolyte
– the zeta potential of the system reduces
– Once it is below the critical value, the attractive forces
supercede the repulsive forces, resulting in flocculation
• Flocs get settled faster than the deflocculated particle
05/29/2024 37
• Flocculated suspension
– Will not form hard cake like deflocculated suspensions and will
resuspended with minute agitation
– A clear supernatant liquid is found at the top of the flocculated
suspensions
• Deflocculated suspensions remain cloudy due to the very

fine dispersed solids
05/29/2024 38
• The deflocculated system shows
• Almost no change in appearance after a few
minutes of manufacture (a)
• After several hours, the whole dispersion is still
cloudy; however, a small and compact sediment
appears (b)
• After prolonged storage, a clear supernatant in
contact with compact sediment is obtained (c)
05/29/2024 39
• In case of a flocculated system
• Within a few minutes of manufacture, a clear
supernatant with a distinct boundary from the
sediment is evident (d)
• After several hours, a larger volume of clear

supernatant occurs (e).
• After prolonged standing, the volume of the

sediment shows little change (f)
05/29/2024 40
Table: Comparative properties of flocculated and deflocculated suspensions
05/29/2024 41
Sedimentation parameters
• The extent of flocculation of a system can be assessed by
sedimentation parameters
• Two important sedimentation parameters are;
– Sedimentation volume and
– Degree of flocculation
05/29/2024 42
Sedimentation parameters…
The sedimentation volume (F)
– Is the ratio of the equilibrium volume of the sediment, Vu to the total

volume of the suspension, Vo
• The value of F normally ranges from 0 to 1
• Suspension with F = 1
 There is no sedimentation
 There is no visible clear supernatant
05/29/2024  Look elegant 43

• It is possible to have F > 1
• The particles in the suspension create such a loose and fluffy
flocs that comes out of the dispersion medium
• Encompasses greater than the original volume of the suspension
• The sedimentation volume gives only a qualitative idea about the
sedimentation of the suspension because it lacks any meaningful
reference point
05/29/2024 44
Degree of flocculation
• Relates the SV of the flocculated suspension, F, to the SV
of the suspension when it is deflocculated, F∞
• The sedimentation volume of the deflocculated
suspension can be shown as
05/29/2024 45
• where F∞ is the SV of the deflocculated system and V∞ is

the ultimate volume of the sediment
• These two equations for SV of flocculated and deflocculated
can be combined as follows:
E.g If β = 4, what does it indicate?
– It implies flocculated suspension creates 4 times more
sediment than the deflocculated one
05/29/2024 46
• E.g. Determine the F of a 2.5% w/v suspension of

paracetamol in water. The initial volume of the suspension
was 100ml while the final volume of the sedement was
found to be 44ml. If the degree of flocculation is 1.5, what
is the deflocculated sedimentation volume?
Answer: 0.44 and 0.29
05/29/2024 47
Quiz (5%)……2.5 each
1. Write at least four criteria of good suspension.
2. Write at least four advantages of suspension as a
dosage form.
05/29/2024 48
Formulation of suspension
• In addition to vehicle, stabilizer, sweetening and flavouring
agents, the following additives are required to prepare
suspensions:
1. Suspending and thickening agents
2. Wetting Agents
3. Dispersing agent
4. Flocculating Agent
Formulation of suspension…
1. Suspending and thickening agents
– They are added to increase the viscosity of the continuous phase,
thus preventing rapid sedimentation of the dispersed particles.
a) Natural Polysaccharides :Gum acacia, Tragacanth, sod. Alginate,

Xanthan Gum
b) Semi-Synthetic Polysaccharides: NaCMC, Methyl cellulose,

Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose
c) Clays: Aluminium, Magnesium Silicate, Bentonite, Hectorite
d) Synthetic Agents: Carbomer, Colloidal Silicon dioxide

2. Wetting Agents
• Wetting agents are usually added to decrease hydrophobicity.
• These agents generally get adsorbed at the solid-liquid interface and
promote wetting of the solid particles by the liquid of the dispersion
medium.
a) Surfactants: polysorbates, sorbitan, esters, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium

dioctyl, sulfosuccinate
b) Hydrophilic Polymers: acacia, bentonite, colloidal silicon dioxide and

cellulose derivatives
c) Hydrophilic Liquids: alcohol, glycerol, propylene glycol

• Surfactants with Hydrophilic–Lipophilic Balance (HLB) value b/n 7
and 9 can function as wetting agents
• lower interfacial tension to decrease the contact angle, resulting
in good wetting
• The hydrocarbon chain of the SAA is adsorbed onto the
hydrophobic surface of the particles and the polar end
remains with the liquid medium
• used at conc. up to 0.1% as wetting agents

05/29/2024 52
HLB scale showing classification of surfactant function
05/29/2024 53
3. Dispersing agent
• Added to aid uniform distribution and dispersion of solid particles of the
dispersed phase.
• Wetting agents such as surfactants are often employed as dispersing agents.
4. Flocculating Agent
• Added to cause controlled aggregation of the particles of the dispersed
phase in a suspension.
Examples of such agents include surfactants, electrolytes and hydrophilic
polymers.
Preparation
 Small scale preparation of suspensions:
Step 1:
 The insoluble materials are ground or levigated in the mortar to a
smooth paste with a vehicle containing the wetting agent.
Step 2:
 All soluble ingredients are dissolved in same portion of the vehicle
and added to the smooth paste to step1 to get slurry (Semi-liquid
mixture).
55
Preparati on…
Step 3: The slurry is transformed to a graduated cylinder, the mortar
is rinsed with successive portion of the vehicle.
Step 4:
 Decide whether the solids are suspended in a structured vehicle
or flocculated and then
 Add the vehicle containing the suspending agent/ flocculating
agent
 Make up the dispersion to the final volume.
56
Packaging and Storage of Suspensions
• Should be packaged in wide mouth containers having adequate
air space above the liquid.
• Generally glass and various grades of plastics are used in packaging of
suspension
• Parenteral suspensions are packed in either glass ampoules or vials.
57
Packaging and Storage of Suspensions…
• Should be stored in tight containers
• Protected from freezing, excessive heat & light
• Label: "Shake Before Use" to ensure uniform distribution of solid
particles and thereby uniform and proper dosage.
• Stored in room temperature if it is dry powder (25 0C).
• It should be stored in the refrigerator after opening or
reconstitute (freezing should be avoided to prevent aggregation)

Reading Assignment
• The approach used in the preparation of physically stable
suspension are three types
• The use of structured vehicle to maintain deflocculated
particles in the suspension
• The application of principle of flocculation to produce flocs
that are easily redispersed with a minimum of agitation
• Combination of the above two approaches
05/29/2024 60
Wetting of the particles
• Some insoluble solids may easily be wet by water and

disperse readily throughout the aqueous phase with minimal
agitation
• Many solid materials are too hydrophobic to be wet and thus
• form large porous clumps within the liquid or remain
floated on the surface
05/29/2024 61
• Poor wetting of hydrophobic powders materials occurs due to
high interfacial tension between the powders and the dispersion
medium
• the contact angle between the solid and liquid phases
remains very high
• The poor wetting may also result from a layer of air or greasy
materials or other impurities covering the surface of the particles
05/29/2024 62
• Wetting of solids can be determined by using Young’s equation
where θ is the contact angle

γ is the interfacial tension between the different phases, solid
(S), vapor (V), and liquid (L)
05/29/2024 63
– Commonly used surfactants as wetting agents for oral use
are polysorbates and sorbitan ester
– SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) is an example of a surfactant
that is used externally
– Parenteral preparation may contain polysorbates, some of
the poloxamers, and lecithin
05/29/2024 64
• Hydrophilic polymers can be used as wetting agent
• Form a hydrophilic coating around the solid particles and
thus promote wetting
• Examples: acacia, tragacanth, xanthan gum and cellulose
derivatives
05/29/2024 65
• Hygroscopic solvents can also improve wetting
• Displace the air from the pores of the individual particles
• Flow into the void space b/n the particles, coat the particles
and separate them and thus bringing dispersion
E.g. alcohol, glycerol, and propylene glycols
05/29/2024 66
Structured vehicle
• Act by entrapping the particles so that, ideally, no settling occur
• Some degree of sedimentation will usually take place
• The “shear-thinning” properties of these vehicle does, however
facilitates the re-formation of a uniform dispersion when shear is
applied
• E.g gum arabics, sodium algenate,
05/29/2024 67
Controlled flocculation
• The main aim is to prevent formation of compact sediment which
is difficult to redisperse
• Controlled flocculation can be achieved by
• a combination of control of particle size and the use of
flocculating agents
• The most common categories of flocculating agents are
electrolytes, surfactants and polymers
05/29/2024 68
Electrolytes
• Act by reducing the zeta potential
• The flocculating power increases with the valency of the ions
• When anionic electrolytes are added to a positively charged

deflocculated suspension, zeta potential decreases slowly
• At a certain stage, upon persistent addition, it becomes zero
• Beyond that limit, zeta potential becomes negative
05/29/2024 69
– As zeta potential decreases, the F increases sharply up to
a point
– F reaches its maximum value and remains relatively
constant within a certain range of zeta potential
– When the potential becomes too negative, F decreases
again
05/29/2024 70
• E.g Flocculation of a bismuth subnitrate suspension by means of
the flocculating agent monobasic potassium phosphate
05/29/2024 71
Surfactants
• Both ionic and nonionic surfactants can be used as
flocculating agents
• Ionic surfactants cause flocculation reducing zeta potential
• Because of long structure, nonionic surfactants are
adsorbed onto more than one particle, thereby,
• Forming a loose flocculated structure

05/29/2024 72
Polymers
• Linear and branched chain polymer form a gel-like network
that adsorbs onto the surface of dispersed particles,
• Holding them in a flocculated state
• Hydrophilic polymers can also function as protective colloids
• In this capacity, flocs are sterically prevented from
adhering to one another
05/29/2024 73
• Some polymers, known as polyelectrolytes, can ionize in
aqueous medium
E.g Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC)
• The extent of ionization depends on the pH and the ionic
strength of the dispersion medium
• These polymers are able to act both electrostatically and
sterically
05/29/2024 74
Flocculation in structured vehicles
• The controlled flocculation approach is capable of fulfilling the desired
physical and chemical requisites of pharmaceutical suspension
• But the product can not look attractive if F is not closer or equal to 1
• Consequently an ideal formulation would be one with controlled
flocculation in structured vehicle where vehicle retard sedimentation
of the flocs
• Suspending agents are added to form structured vehicle
• e.g. CMC, Carbopol 934, Veegum, tragacanth and bentonite
05/29/2024 75
• This may lead to incompatibilities, depending on
• the initial particle charge and
• the charge carried by the flocculating agent and suspending agent
• If we flocculate a suspension of negatively charged particles

with a cationic electrolyte the subsequent addition of a
hydrocolloid (e.g. gums) may result in an incompatible product
05/29/2024 76
• It becomes necessary to use a protective colloid to change
the sign on the particle from -ve to +ve
• by the adsorption onto the particle surface of a fatty acid
amine or material such as gelatin
• We are then able use an anionic electrolyte to produce flocs
that are compatible with negatively charged suspending
agent
05/29/2024 77
Cationic adsorbent
Anionic Flocculant
Uncoated particles
(Positively charged,
Negatively charged Coated particles Flocculated particles
or neutral particle
Suspension of
flocculated particles Finished suspension
before adding Suspending agent
suspending agent
05/29/2024Fig: the sequence of steps involved in formation of stable suspension 78

Rheologic Considerations
• Rheologic Considerations are important in pharmaceutical
suspensions since they affect viscosity
– This in turn affects the sedimentation rate and redispersion
• Rheological attributes also influence the flow property of the
suspensions when the containers are shaken and the product
is poured from
05/29/2024 79
Rheologic Considerations…
• Externally applied suspension products should spread easily,
but they are not expected to be so fluid that they run off the
skin surface
• Parenteral products have to be fluid enough to pass through
needles when moderate pressure is applied
05/29/2024 80
• Rheology can affect the manufacturing process of suspensions
– Highly viscous mixture produces excessive frictional drag
on the mixing vessel and other machinery accessories,
thereby resulting in wasted energy
05/29/2024 81
• Concentrated flocculated suspensions show high viscosity
when static, due to high interparticle attraction
• A minimum force is required to overcome that attraction
• Once that force is applied, viscosity decreases substantially
• These characters are typical to plastic flow
05/29/2024 82
• Most suspensions exhibit pseudoplastic flow
• Both plastic and pseudoplastic systems can be beneficial to
formulate stable suspension products;
– Because at high stress, such as shaking the bottle, the
products become thinner and make withdrawal and
application easier
05/29/2024 83
• The principle of thixotropy can be applied to pharmaceutical

suspensions
– It is applicable to both plastic and pseudoplastic systems
– When the bottle is shaken, the products become thin and thus
will remain thin for a sufficient period of time even upon
withdrawal of the force to allow an accurate dose withdrawal
• Concentrated deflocculated suspensions appear to be more
structured and viscous with the increase in shearing stress
05/29/2024 84
Physical Stability of suspensions
• Raising the temperature leads to flocculation or coagulation of
sterically stabilized suspensions
• When the suspension is heated the energy of repulsion b/n the
particles reduced owning to dehydration of the polyoxyethylene
groups of the surfactant
– The attractive energy increased and the particles flocculate or
coagulate
05/29/2024 85
Physical Stability of suspensions…
• Particle growth is also a destabilizing process resulting from
• temperature fluctuation or
• Ostwald ripening during storage
• Change the particle surface diameter and polymorphic
form of a drug, altering the dissolution rate and drug BA
05/29/2024 86
Physical Stability of suspensions…
• Particle growth is particularly important when the solubility
of the drug is strongly dependent on the temperature
– Thus when temperature is raised, crystals of drug may dissolve
and form supersaturated solutions, which favor crystal growth
– This can be prevented by the addition of polymers or
surfactants
• The stability of suspensions may also decrease owning to the

interaction with excipients dissolved in dispersion medium
05/29/2024 87
THANK YOU.
05/29/2024 88

Pharmaceutical Suspension

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Pharmaceutical Suspension

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Pharmaceutical Suspensions

• The internal (dispersed) phase

• Is made up of particulate matter, which is practically insoluble in the

• Generally a liquid (liquid suspensions) or

• Most pharmaceutical suspensions consist of an aqueous dispersion medium

• organic or oily liquids (some times)

• Depending on the ROA pharmaceutical suspensions can be

• The suspended particle should not degrade too quickly or undergo

E.g Chloraphenicol suspension and Erythromycin Estolate susp.

E.g Antibiotic suspension

– Efficient for IM depot therapy

– Compared to solution DFs, relatively higher concentration of drugs can be

Disadvantages of suspension DFs

– Requirement of large storage area

• The smaller the ∆G is, the more thermodynamically stable is the

• The particles tends to flocculate (desirable)

• i.e. to form light, fluffy aggregates that are held together by

1. Reducing interfacial tension

May 29, 2024 Phar 212 15

• Beyond the diffuse layer, the concentrations of co- and counter-

• Potential difference between the actual solid surface and the

• If the zeta potential is reduced below a certain value

between particles, VT is the result of repulsion due to electrical

double layer, VR and attraction due to van der Waals’ force, VA

• The factors that affect VA includes;

• The maximum repulsive value is known as the energy barrier

• The primary minimum.

can be termed either as “flocculation” or “coagulation”

– Flocculation occurs at the secondary energy minimum

– Coagulation occurs at the primary energy minimum of

the potential energy curve of two interacting particles

– η (poise) is the viscosity of the dispersion medium

• The difference in density b/n the dispersed phase and dispersion

medium can affect the rate of settling

• Since the density of the dispersed phase cannot be changed, it

would be necessary to increase the density of the medium

– by using some density modifiers e.g., sorbitol and

– The electrical potential between two charges is

• Upon the addition of a small amount of electrolyte

– the zeta potential of the system reduces

– Once it is below the critical value, the attractive forces

supercede the repulsive forces, resulting in flocculation

• Flocs get settled faster than the deflocculated particle

resuspended with minute agitation

– A clear supernatant liquid is found at the top of the flocculated

• Deflocculated suspensions remain cloudy due to the very

• After several hours, a larger volume of clear

• After prolonged standing, the volume of the

Table: Comparative properties of flocculated and deflocculated suspensions

– Sedimentation volume and

– Is the ratio of the equilibrium volume of the sediment, Vu to the total

• The value of F normally ranges from 0 to 1

 There is no visible clear supernatant

05/29/2024  Look elegant 43

• where F∞ is the SV of the deflocculated system and V∞ is

• E.g. Determine the F of a 2.5% w/v suspension of

1. Write at least four criteria of good suspension.

2. Write at least four advantages of suspension as a

a) Natural Polysaccharides :Gum acacia, Tragacanth, sod. Alginate,

b) Semi-Synthetic Polysaccharides: NaCMC, Methyl cellulose,

c) Clays: Aluminium, Magnesium Silicate, Bentonite, Hectorite

d) Synthetic Agents: Carbomer, Colloidal Silicon dioxide

a) Surfactants: polysorbates, sorbitan, esters, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium