DEVELOPMENT OF GYROS

AND
IMPROVEMENT OF SHIPPING

ABHISHEK PANIGRAHI (ROLL NO. 2)

ABHISHEK JAIN (ROLL NO. 1)
ASHNA DHINGRA (ROLL NO. 9)
SHRUTI SAROJINEE (ROLL NO. 38)
 Basic Navigation principles Navigation

Navis—ship
Agere—to direct

Navigation is the process of
monitoring and controlling the
movement of a craft or vehicle
from one place to another.
It is also the term of art used for
the specialized knowledge used
by navigators to perform
navigation tasks.
All navigational techniques involve
locating the navigator's position
compared to known locations or
patterns.
2
NAUTIC
AL
CHART
 The Globe

The Earth is NOT a perfect • 7926.5 miles at its Equator.

sphere. • 79200 miles from North to South.

• Lines of longitude appear vertical with varying curvature in this projection, but are
Lines of Longitude (λ) The Mercator Projection
actually halves of great ellipses, with identical radii at a given latitude.

• Lines of latitude appear horizontal with varying curvature in this projection; but are
Lines of Latitude (φ) actually circular with different radii. All locations with a given latitude are collectively
referred to as a circle of latitude.

• The equator divides the planet into a Northern Hemisphere and

The Equator: a Southern Hemisphere, and has a latitude of 0°
 Lines of Longitude

Longitude
The demarcation of the longitude coordinate is done with lines going up and down are called
the meridians. A figure to the right shows a few meridians. Longitude ranges from 0° to 180° East and
0° to 180° West.
The longitude angle is measured from the center of the earth as shown in the earth graphic to the
right.
The zero point of longitude is defined as a point in Greenwich, England called the Prime Meridian.

Great Circles – The largest circle that can be drawn

on the surface of the earth & all like it.
– Equator
– Meridians

Equator Meridian Great Circle

Terrestrial Coordinate System

5
 Why Greenwich of all
places?

• Prior to 1884 there were several landmarks from which longitude

was measured. Unlike the measurement of latitude, longitude
was very difficult to measure while navigating. Errors were made,
sometimes with tragic results. In response to one such tragic
result England passed the Longitude Act – a contest for a
practicable method of determining longitude at sea with a hefty
cash reward. John Harrison is credited by history as being the
person to do so with his inventions of very precise
“chronometers” that weren't based on pendulums (pendulums
don't keep good time at sea). The story, however, is a remarkable
one of prejudice, politics, and science. Harrison was never
awarded the prize by the Board of Longitude set up by the act –
only through direct intervention from parliament was he awarded
money for his efforts.
• In 1884, U.S. President Arthur organized the International
Meridian Conference, attended by delegates from 25 nations.
Partly because of John Harrison being the first to come up with a
practicable method of determining longitude at sea, over two
thirds of sea freighters used Greenwich as the reference point for
longitude. This carried over to a vote by the conference
establishing Greenwich as the reference point of 0 longitude. 6
 • Latitude

• The demarcation of the latitude coordinate is done with circles on the

globe parallel to the equator.
• These parallel circles, fittingly enough, are called parallels of latitude.
Lines of Latitude The figure to the right shows several parallels of latitude.
• Latitude goes for 0° at the equator to +90° N at the North Pole or -90° S
at the South Pole where the angle is also measured from the center of
the earth as shown in the earth graphic to the right.

7
 The Nautical Mile
• The nautical mile (symbol M, NM or nmi) is
a unit of length that is about one minute of
arc of latitude along any meridian, or about one minute of
arc of longitude at the equator. By international agreement
it is exactly 1,852 meters (approximately 6,076 feet).
• The nautical mile remains in use by sea and air navigators Historical definition - 1 nautical mile
worldwide because of its convenience when working with
charts.
• Most nautical charts are constructed on the Mercator
projection whose scale varies by approximately a factor of
six from the equator to 80° north or south latitude. It is,
therefore, impossible to show a single linear scale for use
on charts on scales smaller than about 1/80,000.
• The nautical mile circumvents this problem by being equal Visual comparison of a kilometre, statute mile, and nautical
to a minute of latitude on a chart, which allows any mile
distance measured with a chart divider to be simply
converted using the chart's latitude scale.
Nautical Mile per
Hour-KNOT
• The knot (pronounced not) is a unit of speed equal to
one nautical mile (which is defined as 1.852 km) per hour,
approximately 1.151 mph.[
• The knot is a non-SI unit accepted for use with the International
System of Units (SI).Worldwide, the knot is used in meteorology,
and in maritime and air navigation—for example, a vessel
travelling at 1 knot along a meridian travels one minute of
geographic latitude in one hour.
• Etymologically, the term knot derives from counting the number
of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a chip log in a
specific time.
• 1 KNOT = 6080 / 5280 = 76/66 m.p.h
How to locate
any point

10
VOYAGE
Getting a position fix

Position fixing These techniques include:

• is the branch • Position lines and position
of navigation concerned with circles
the use of a variety of visual • Celestial navigation
and electronic methods to • Radio navigation
determine the position of • Satellite navigation system
a ship, aircraft or person on
the surface of the Earth.

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by A/E Waqar Ahmad
Khan 12
Using Celestial
Objects
• Using the sextant and, the
lines of latitude and the
celestial objects like the Sun
or the Polar Star one can
position oneself w.r.t.
latitude.

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by A/E Waqar Ahmad
Khan 13
Using magnets for
getting a fix

• Magnetic properties of materials

used for ages for finding headings.
• The synonym for the compass is
the “Lodestone” which means
Leading stone.
• Natural magnets have now been
substituted by artificial means
which are mush more sensitive.

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by A/E

Waqar Ahmad Khan 14
The Earths’ magnetic field
A schematic illustrating the
relationship between motion of
conducting fluid, organized into rolls
by the Coriolis force, and the
magnetic field the motion generates.

The earth acts like a giant magnet due to the rotation of the Earth’s
core.

The place where the flux enters the earth is the magnetic north
pole.

Its is NOT the same as the geographic north pole.

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning C 15
neter by A/E Waqar Ahmad Khan
Magnetic Variation

• The difference between the true

North and the Magnetic North.
• Isogonal Lines = Lines drawn on the
charts connecting points of equal
variation.

16
How do we get there?
• Plot a course
• What’s a course?
• path of intended motion
• Steer a heading
• What’s a heading?
• the direction the aircraft is pointed
• Make a good track
• What’s a track?
• the aircraft’s path over the ground

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by A/E Waqar Ahmad
Khan 17
Course, Heading, & Track

Big Bad Wind

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning C 18

neter by A/E Waqar Ahmad Khan
 Bearings
• a bearing is the actual (corrected) compass direction of the forward course of the
aircraft.
• A true bearing is measured in relation to the fixed horizontal reference plane of true
north, that is, using the direction toward the geographic north pole as a reference
point.
• A magnetic bearing is measured in relation to magnetic north, that is, using the
direction toward the magnetic north pole as a reference.
• A grid bearing is measured in relation to the fixed horizontal reference plane of grid
north, that is, using the direction northwards along the grid lines of the map
projection as a reference point.
• A compass bearing, as in vehicle or marine navigation, is measured in relation to
the magnetic compass of the navigator's vehicle or vessel. It should be very close to the
magnetic bearing. The difference between a magnetic bearing and a compass bearing is
the deviation caused to the compass by ferrous metals and local magnetic fields
generated by any variety of vehicle or shipboard sources (steel vehicle bodies/frames or
vessel hulls, ignition systems, etc.)
• A relative bearing is one in which the reference direction is straight ahead, where the
bearing is measured relative to the direction the navigator is facing (on land) or in
relation to the vessel's bow (aboard ship).
The Compass
Card
• True & magnetic courses are
given in 3 digits, e.g. 090
• Relative bearings are given in
degrees or clock position,
e.g. 10º left of the nose, or
11 o’clock

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by A/E Waqar Ahmad
Khan 20
True Bearing

•A true bearing is measured in relation to the

fixed horizontal reference plane of true north,
that is, using the direction toward the geographic
north pole as a reference point.

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by

A/E Waqar Ahmad Khan 21
Magnetic Bearings

• A magnetic bearing is measured in

relation to magnetic north, that is,
using the direction toward
the magnetic north pole as a reference.
• Westerly variations- Magnetic Bearing >
True Bearing.
• Easterly variations- Magnetic Bearing <
True Bearing.

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by A/E Waqar Ahmad
Khan 22
 Deviation
• In nautical terminology deviation is the magnetic compass error caused by
magnetized iron within the structure of the aircraft.
• Any magnet, in the proximity of a compass, will cause the compass needle to
"deviate" from Magnetic North. In the case of big steel or iron structures, such as
aircraft, this deviation error can be both large and variable.
• The problem of analyzing and correcting the magnetic deviation error is complex
- because the magnetized iron in every aircraft is a combination of iron particles
which have become 'permanently' magnetized and iron particles which contain
some "temporary" magnetism that has been induced by the Earth's magnetic
field.
• Deviation errors vary with the ship's magnetic heading (the angle the ship makes
to magnetic north).
• Magnetic declination, also called variation, is the angular difference between
true north and the direction of the Earth's magnetic field at any point on the
Earth's surface.
• The corresponding definition, for deviation, is the angular difference between
magnetic north and the compass needle. Variation and deviation both influence
magnetic compass needles. Their combined effect is known as magnetic
"Compass error" 23
Compass Bearing

24
Relative Bearing

Basic Comm/Navigation Developed for PIA Traning Cneter by A/E Waqar Ahmad Khan 25
Aircraft Heading 26
Great Circles
& Rhumb The Mercator Projection

Lines • The shortest path from one

point to the other on the
globe is on a great circle.
• But it is more feasible to
follow a route of constant 27

heading which lies on a

Rhumb Line.
Gyroscope

An Introduction
 GYRO COMPASS

It is used to find the right

direction. Unlike a
magnetic compass, the
gyrocompass is not
interfered with by an
external magnetic field. It
is used to determine the
correct north position,
which is also the Earth's
axis of rotation to provide
a stable directional
source. Its repeater system
must be installed on the
steering platform for
emergency steering.
POSITIONAL
ACCURACY
IN
NAVIGATIO
N
•A gyroscope is an instrument, containing a fast spinning wheel or
circulating beam of light, that is used to measure or maintain orientation
and angular velocity.
•A mechanical gyroscope is made of four components:
•Gimbal is a pivoted support that enables the rotation of an object about a
single axis.
•Frame (also called outermost gimbal) possesses one degree of rotational
freedom.
•Spinning Wheel is mounted on the innermost gimbal.
•Spin Axis is the axle of the spinning wheel.
Inertial
Navigation
System
33
RING LASER GYROSCOPES
 WHAT IS INS?

• Self-Contained System
• Measures
– Position

– Velocity

– Orientation

– Angular Velocity

Inertial Navigation System 35

 HOW DOES IT WORK

• Gyroscopes

Inertial Navigation System

– Angular Velocity

• Accelerometers

– Linear Acceleration

• Change in Velocity

• Time

36
 WHERE ARE THEY
USED
• Aircraft
• Ships
• Submarines
• Train
• Satellites
• Missiles

Inertial Navigation System 37

 PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION

• 06 Degrees Of Freedom

– 03 Rotational Degree

– 03 Linear Degree

• Ring Laser Gyros

• Accelerometer

Inertial Navigation System 38

 RING LASER GYRO

GYROS PRODUCE 2 LASER LIGHTS

Same Path Opposite Direction

Detector Compares
Interference Phase Difference

Photodiodes Calculates
Magnitude Direction

Inertial Navigation System 39

RING LASER GYRO
Inertial Navigation System 40
Inertial Navigation System
41
RING LASER GYRO
RING
LASER
GYRO

Inertial Navigation System 42

RING LASER
GYRO

Inertial Navigation System 43

 RING LASER GYRO
Inertial Navigation System 44
 RING LASER GYRO

Inertial Navigation System 45

 ADVANTAGES
OF RLG

• No Moving Parts

– No Friction

• High Reliability/ Accuracy

• Extremely Sensitive

• Compact Unit

• Light Weight

Inertial Navigation System 46

ACCELEROMETERS

Inertial Navigation System 47

 ACCELEROMETERS
Measure Linear Acceleration

Inertial Navigation System 48

 INS MEMORIES
• Crew Catalog
– Temporary
– Deletion of Memory
– Total 120 Data Items
• Custom Memory
– Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory
– 2005 Data Items
– 100 Custom Routes, 98 Waypoints Each
• Read Only Memory(Permanent)
– Operational Programs
– Solves Navigation Equations

Inertial Navigation System 49

 INERTIAL
NAVIGATION UNIT
• Below floor panel near CG

• Weighs 57 lbs (28 Kg)

• Cooling Fan (92 lbs/hr)

• 115 volts AC, 400 Hz Single Phase

• 28 V DC Backup

Inertial Navigation System 50

 51

INERTIAL
NAVIGATION
UNIT

Inertial Navigation System

Sagnac Effect
• First experiments concerning light propagation in rotating media were
carried out by F. Harress in 1911.
• George Sagnac published his results in 1913 and is credited with the effect
since Harress made numerous errors in interpretation of his experiment
• A thought experiment:

2R
ct   2R  Rt   t  
c  R
2R
ct  2R  Rt  t 
c  R
4R 2
L  c(t   t  ) 
c
L 8
  2  A
 c
Sagnac Effect continued
• A more realistic situation is an N sided regular polygon:

L  ( MoM1'  MoM 1) cos

( MoM1'  MoM 1)  R
MoM1' MoM1 L
    
c c c
L 2 A
L  R cos 
c c
2 A 4 Aenc 
L  2 
c c
L 8A
  2 
 c
8 1
  A  , A   r  dr
c 2
Sagnac effect continued
• Let us put in some numbers:
d=10 cm, A = 45 cm2, l= 633 nm,
W = 15 deg/hr =7.3*10-5 rad/s

Df = 4.2*10-8 rad

• B. Pogany experimented with an 80 kg device trying to rotate at 1600 rpm.

He reported that all optical parts were damaged due to vibration by 600 rpm.

• Michelson used 5 miles of evacuated sewer pipes to measure the rotation of

the Earth.
Fiber Gyro
• To increase effective area, we can wind N loops of fiber optic cable.

2 L D 
  L  N D
c

• The output intensity is modulated by the phase shift between the two
beams.

I  I o ( 1  co s(  ))
Fiber Gyro Continued
• The dynamic range of the device is easily configurable using the length and the diameter of the fiber
loop.

c
 
2 LD
• For example,
l = 850 nm, L = 1 km, D = 10 cm Þ Wp = 73 deg/s
For 1m rad sensitivity Þ Wm = 0.084 deg/h

• For example,
l = 850 nm, L = 100 m, D = 3 cm Þ Wp = 2400 deg/s
For 1m rad sensitivity Þ Wm = 2.8 deg/h
Sources of Noise
• Fundamental Limitations
· Sensitivity is limited by shot noise that goes as the square root of the power.

· The power received at the detector decreases with fiber length:

P  Po e  L
· However, the Sagnac effect increases with the length of the fiber. These two competing
effects set the length of the fiber for a given sensitivity.

· For a sensitivity of 10-3 deg/h, L is roughly few kilometers.

Sources of Noise
• Thermal Noise
· Time dependent temperature gradient along the length of the fiber can
introduce spurious phase shifts due to the temperature dependence of the index
of refraction and the cable.

n c L 2  T dn c
T  (  n c ) t
2 4 N A dT
· For dt = 1 h, D = 20 cm, L = 1.56 km, dn/dT = 10-5 /0C,
a = 5*10-7 /0C, n=1.45, and calculated shot noise limit of 0.0078 deg/h, DT needs
to be 6.7*10-3 /0C.

· Use fibers with smaller dn/dT

· Wind the coil such that equidistant points from fiber center are physically close
to each other.
Sources of Noise
• Polarization and Birefringence
· Single mode fibers permit transmission of two orthogonal polarizations

· Mechanical stresses can cause power transfer between polarizations and

birefringence which changes the wave velocity. The result is a superposition
of two interference patterns that lead to poor contrast and fringe shifts.

· Polarizers were initially used to suppress the weak polarization

· Polarization preserving fibers with high birefringence is used to suppress

the weak polarization.
Sources of Noise
• Backscatter and Beam to Filter Coupling
· Backscatter at the output-input couplers can interfere with the main
beams creating parasitic interferometers.

· A reasonable criterion is that the reflected power should be on the order

of the intrinsic Rayleigh scattering. Since in a 1 m long, single mode fiber,
the approximate value for the backscattered power is –60 dB, the reflected
power at the input/output interface should be less than 10-6 times the
beam power.

· Antireflective coating on fiber surfaces is not enough as a solution.

· Immersion cell to reduce index of refraction step.
· Production of fibers with slanted end faces
Sources of Noise
• Optical Kerr Effect
· Electric fields of the counter-propagating beams can cause changes in the index of refraction
that is nonreciprocal if |E1| and |E2| are not equal (I1/I2 = ±10-4 leads to 10-3 deg/h shifts, Bergh
et. al.1982).
c c
v CW  v CCW 
[ o  2 (| E 1 |2  2 | E 2 |2 ]1 / 2 [ o  2 (| E 2 |2  2 | E 1|2 ]1 / 2

· A clever way to eliminate this

problem is a square wave modulation
Laser Gyro
• Introduce an active laser medium into the cavity. This effectively converts
phase changes to frequency changes.
c
L  m  m

 
L c c  4 A 
   L  (  ) 
L L L 2  L

• The intensity is modulated at the beat frequency:

I  I o ( 1  co s( 2  t ))

• d=10 cm, A = 45 cm2, l= 633 nm, W = 15 deg/hr =7.3*10-5 rad/s

Dn = 7 Hz
Sources of Errors
• Null Shift
· The beat frequency is nonzero even when W=0

· Langmuir flow: In active laser media, neutral atoms along the center of the discharge move
toward the cathode while the atoms near the walls move toward the anode. Since the lasing light
is concentrated in the center, the two counter propagating beams see opposite motion for the
lasing medium and hence different index of refraction (Fressnel drag).
· Use two discharge tubes
Sources of Errors
• Mode Locking
· Backscattering in the optical path (mirrors) weakly couples the counter
propagating beams. If the beat frequency gets smaller than a threshold
value, the modes oscillate at the same frequency, eliminating the beat
note.

4A o r
  S   b sin where S  and b
L o
S
· For SW<b, there is a stable solution where     arcsin ( )
b

· WTH » b/S = 400 deg/h for b=103 rad/s