MEASUREMENTS AND ELETRICITY

EXPERIMENTS
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA
 MEASUREMENTS AND MEASUREMENT ERROR
• A measurable quantity is a property of a phenomena, objects or bodies that can
be defined qualitatively and expressed quantitatively. Measurable quantities are
called physical quantities. The basic feature of physical quantities is that they can
be measured.

• Measurement is the process of finding the value of a physical quantity

experimentally with the aid of a measuring instrument. The result of measurement
is the value of a physical quantity expressed in its standard unit and obtained with
a specific measuring instrument.
 FEATURES OF MEASUREMENT
The features of measurement are
(I) The result of a measurement must always be a number expressed in specified units
of measurement. The essence of measurement is to represent property of an object
by a number.

(II) There is no measurement without a measuring instrument. Measurements are

done with the aid of measuring instruments.

(III) Measurement is an experimental procedure.

 MEASUREMENT ERROR
Measurement error is the deviation of the result of measurement from the true value of
the measurable quantity expressed in absolute or relative form.

The error expressed in absolute form is called the absolute measurement error. It is
usually expressed in the same unit as the measurable quantity.

If the error is expressed in relative form, it is called relative measurement error. Relative
measurement error is expressed as a fraction of the true value of the measurable
quantity. Relative errors are usually expressed as a percentage.

Uncertainty of measurement is an interval within which a true value of a measured value

lies with a given probability. Uncertainty is defined with its limits that are read out from a
result of measurement in agreement with the mentioned probability. Uncertainty can be
expressed in absolute or relative form.
Inaccuracy of measurement characterizes the imperfection of measurements. Accuracy
is a positive characteristic of measurement. The accuracy of a measurement reflects
how close the result is to the true value of the measured quantity. The more accurate a
measurement is, the smaller is its error.
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurements can be classified into (i) Direct measurement (ii) Indirect measurement (iii)
Combined measurement.

In direct measurement, the measuring instrument interacts with the object of study and
the value of the measurement is read from the indications of the measuring instrument.
Sometimes, the reading of the instrument is multiplied by a factor and some times,
corrections are made.

In indirect measurements, the value of the measurable quantity is found based on a

known dependence between this quantity and other quantities. The other quantities may
be found by direct, indirect, or simultaneous or combined measurements. For example,
determination of the density of a solid body as the ratio of its mass to volume respectively
determined directly.
Simultaneous and combined measurements use close methods to find the measurable
quantities . In simultaneous and combined measurements, the measurable quantities are
found by solving a system of equations whose coefficients and separate terms are
obtained as a result of direct measurements.
In combined measurements, several quantities of the same kind are measured
simultaneously. But in simultaneous measurements, quantities of different kinds are
measured simultaneously.
Simultaneous measurements are based on known equations that reflects relations
existing in nature between the properties of the object.
In all classes of measurements, mentioned above, measurements are made either with
single or repeated observations, The method employed for processing the experimental
data depends on the number of observations. If a measurement is made with repeated
observation, then to obtain a result, the observations must be analyzed statistically.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC MEASUREMENTS
Static measurements are measurements in which in which the measuring instrument are
employed in the static regime. In the static regime, the output of the measurement can be
regarded as constant. Consider an indicating measuring instrument, the signal is constant for a
sufficient time for the reading to be taken. Static measurement includes measurements of
lengths, mass etc. measurement of the average and effective values of alternating current by
indicating instruments. Static measurements include measurements performed using digital
instruments.
Dynamic measurements are measurements in which the measuring instruments are employed
in the dynamic regime. Dynamic regime is a regime in which the output signal changes with
time. So that to obtain the result or estimate its accuracy, this change must be taken into
consideration.
Dynamic measurements consist of not a single measurement, but rather many
measurements. Dynamic measurements refer measurements of successive values of
quantities that vary in time. For example, the recording of a quantity as a function of time.
Examples of dynamic measurements are the temperature of a cooling liquid, the temperature
of an object or liquid that is heated. Other examples of dynamic measurements are
measurements of magnetic flux using ballistic method, and measurement of very high
temperature of a hot object using a thermocouple.
The most important characteristic or quality of a measurement is its accuracy. The accuracy
of any particular measurement is determined by the accuracy of the instrument used, the
method of measurement and the skill of the person making the measurement.
QUALITIES OF MEASUREMENT
Repeatability of measurement: This quality of measurements reflects the closeness of
the results of measurements of the same quantity performed under the same conditions.
Good repeatability shows that random errors are small.

Reproducibility of measurements: This is the quality of measurements that reflects the

closeness of the results of the measurements of the same quantity performed under
different conditions. i.e in different laboratories at different locations and using different
equipment. Good reproducibility shows that both random and systematic errors are
small.
MISTAKES AND ERRORS
Mistakes are made by the person performing the experiment or ding the calculation.
Mistakes can be rectified or totally eliminated by being careful. Mistakes are personal
and may not affect the whole readings.

Errors are inherent in the measurement or experimental process. Errors cannot be

rectified or totally eliminated. Errors can arise from the person performing the
experiment, the experimental process and the theory. The whole measurements or set
of readings can be affected by error(s).
CAUSES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS

Measurement errors can be caused by (i) the method (ii) The Instrument (iii) personnel

The Method: The method gives rise to methodological errors which can arise as a result of
inadequate theory of the phenomena on which the measurement is based. Also, inaccuracy
of the relations that are employed to find an estimate of the measurable quantity.
Methodological error arise from the model of a specific object and the object itself.

The Instrument: Errors due to instrument are called instrumental measurement errors. They
are caused by the imperfection of the measuring instrument. Instrumental error is intrinsic
error of the measuring instrument. The intrinsic error are obtained under reference
conditions and regarded as normal.
Personnel: Errors due to personnel are errors due to the person(s) performing the
experiment (the experimenter). The experimenter takes the reading and records it.
The individual characteristics of the person performing the measurement gives rise to
individual errors that are characteristics of that person.

Personal errors include errors due to incorrect reading of the graduation scale of the
instrument, wrong recording of readings, improvement in the regulating mechanisms
and readings of measuring instruments has made personal errors insignificant. For
example, personnel errors are virtually non-existent in digital instruments.
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS
Based on the properties of measurement errors, they can be classified into

(i) Systematic Errors: Systematic errors are errors that affect the readings or
measurements in a regular pattern. For example error due to the calibration of a measuring
instrument. Systematic error can be eliminated by using different methods or instruments to
take a particular measurement. Systematic errors are estimated by theoretical analysis of
the measurement conditions based on known properties of the measured quantity and
measuring instrument.
(ii) Erratic Errors: Erratic errors arises from personal mistakes. Erratic errors affect the
readings in an irregular pattern. Examples include wrong scale readings, wrong calculations,
wrong counting of the number of calibrations, etc. Erratic errors can be minimized or
eliminated b practice and carefulness.
(iii) Random Errors: Random errors are errors that affect the readings in an irregular
pattern. Random errors make the reading to be smaller or bigger than the actual value.
Random errors are due to fluctuations in external conditions, fluctuation in current and
voltage in electricity experiments. Averaging a number of measurements for a particular
quantity reduces or eliminates random errors.
(iv) Gross or outlying Error: This is error that significantly exceeds the error justified
by the conditions of the measurements, the properties of the measuring instrument
employed, the method of measurement and the qualification of the person performing
the measurement. Gross or outlying error can arise from sudden and sharp change in
variables that affects the independent quantity being measured. Outlying and gross
errors in many instruments are discovered by statistical methods and are usually
eliminated from analysis.
(v) Blunders: Blunders occur as a result of errors made by the experimenter.
Examples are a slip of the pen when writing down results or observation , wrong scale
readings etc. Blunders are discovered by non-statistical methods and they must always be
eliminated from the analysis.
 ELECTICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Measuring instruments are technical objects that are specifically developed for the
purpose of measuring specific physical quantities. A general property of measuring
instruments is that their accuracy is standardized.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Basically, measuring instruments are classified into
(i) Mechanical Instruments: Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static and stable
conditions. The disadvantage of mechanical instruments is their inability to respond
rapidly to measurement of dynamic and transient conditions.
(ii) Electrical Instruments: Electrical instruments have fast response than mechanical
instruments. Electrical instruments indicate the output of a measurement using the
movement of a mechanical meter as the indicating device.
(iii) Electronic Instruments: Electronic instruments have very fast response. Electronic
instruments can take dynamic and transient measurements in shot interval of time.
Example of electronic instrument is the cathode ray oscilloscope
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
i) Absolute or Primary Electrical Measuring Instruments
Absolute or primary measuring instrument gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement
in terms of physical constants of the instrument for example Tangent galvanometer. Absolute or
primary measuring instrument do not require comparison with any other standard instrument.
These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity measured in terms of absolute
quantities of the instruments and their deflections. Absolute or primary instruments do not
require calibration or comparison with other instruments. They are outdated and not used in our
laboratories. They are mostly used as means of standard measurements and are maintained in
National laboratories and similar institutions. Examples of absolute instruments are Tangent
galvanometer, Raleigh current balance, absolute electrometer
ii) Secondary Electrical Measuring Instruments
Secondary electrical measuring instrument are constructed in such a way that the quantity
being measured can only be determined by the output shown by the measuring instrument.
They are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary
measuring instrument, which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Secondary electrical measuring instruments are direct reading instruments. This means that
The quantity to be measured by these instruments can be determined from the deflection of
the instruments. They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute
instruments or with those which have already been calibrated. Secondary electrical measuring
instruments are used generally for practical works in our laboratories. laboratory purposes.
Examples of secondary electrical measuring instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter,
energy meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.
Classification of Secondary Electrical Measuring Instruments:
Classification based on output of measurements
Deflection type: Deflection of the instrument provides a means for determining the
quantity been measured the measured quantity causes some physical effect which
deflects or produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument.
Null Type: In a null type instrument, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the
magnitude of measured quantity.
Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage) on the operation
measuring instrument. The effects are;
• Magnetic effect: Magnetic effects are used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters, integrating
meters etc.
• Heating effect: Heating effect is used in ammeters and voltmeters.
• Chemical effect: Chemical effects are used in direct current ampere hour meters.
• Electrostatic effect: Electrostatic effects are used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Electromagnetic induction effect is used in alternating
current ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and integrating meters.

Generally the magnetic effect and the electromagnetic induction effect are utilized for the
construction of the commercial instruments. Some of the instruments are also named based on
the above effect such as electrostatic voltmeter, induction instruments, etc.
Classification of secondary electrical measuring instruments based on the nature of their
Operations
(i) Indicating instruments
Indicating instruments generally have a pointer which moves over a scale. The pointer
which moves over a scale is the means that the quantity is being measured. Examples are
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
(ii) Recording instruments
Recording instruments records continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with
respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but are arranged that a
permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial. The recording is
generally made by a pen on a graph paper which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform
speed. The amount of the quantity at any time may be read from the traced chart. Any
variation in the quantity with time is recorded by these instruments. Any electrical quantity
like current, voltage, power etc., may be arranged to be recorded by a suitable recording
mechanism. These days the recordings can be done using a computer.
(III) Integrating instruments:
These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular
period of time. Integrating instruments sum events over a given period of time. No indication of the rate or
variation or the amount at a particular instant are available from them. Some widely used integrating
instruments are: Ampere- hour meter: kilowatt hour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVA Rh) meter.
Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measured.
Here we have (i) Direct current (dc) instruments (ii) Alternating current (ac) instruments and (iii) both direct
current and alternating current instruments (dc/ac instruments).

Classification based on the method used.

(i) Direct measuring instruments: Direct measuring instruments convert the energy of the measured
quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of the unknown quantity is
measured or displayed or recorded directly. These instruments are mostly used by Engineers, Scientists and
Technologists because they are simple and inexpensive. Also, the instruments do waste time when taking the
measurement. Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc.
(ii) Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparing with a
standard value. Examples are direct current and alternating current bridges and potentiometers. They are
used when a higher accuracy of measurements is needed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
These performance characteristics of an instrument are very important in their selection.
Static Characteristics: The static characteristics are the value or performance given after the steady state
condition has reached. Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments which are used
to measure an unvarying process condition. Performance criteria based upon static relations represent the
static Characteristics.
Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments which are
used to measure a varying process condition. Performance criteria based on dynamic relations represent the
dynamic Characteristics.

Static Characteristics
1. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches
to the true value of the quantity being measured. It determines the closeness to true value of
instrument reading. Accuracy is represented by percentage of full scale reading or in terms of inaccuracy
or in terms of error value. Example, Accuracy of temperature measuring instrument might be specified
by ±3ºC. This accuracy means the temperature reading might be within + or -3ºC deviation from the true
value. Accuracy of an instrument is specified by ±5% for the range of 0 to 200ºC in the temperature scale
means the reading might be within + or -10ºC of the true reading.
2. Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement. Precision is a measure
of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of measurements that are repeatedly made under
the prescribed condition Precision is used in measurements to describe the stability or reliability or the
reproducibility of results.

3. Bias: Bias is a characteristic of measuring instruments to give indications of the value of a measured
quantity for which the average value differs from true value. Bias is quantitative term describing the
difference between the average of measured readings made on the same instrument and its true value

4. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output signal to the change in input signal.
Sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output changes when input changes. If the sensitivity is
constant then the system is said to be a linear system. If the sensitivity varies, then the system is said to be
non linear system. Sensitivity could be linear, non –linear or constant over the entire range of the
measurement.

5. Linearity: Linearity is the best characteristics of an instrument or measurement system. Linearity of the
instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly proportional to input over the entire range of
instrument. So the degree of linear relationship between the output to input is called as linearity of an
instrument.

6. Nonlinearity: The maximum difference or deviation of output curve from the Specified idealized straight
line as shown in figure 4. Independent nonlinearity may be defined as
7. Resolution: Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest change in the input value that is required to cause
an appreciable change in the output. (The smallest increment in input or input change which can be
detected by an instrument is called as resolution
8. Dead Zone: Dead zone or dead band is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no
output. The region up to which the instrument does not respond for an input is the dead zone. The dead
zone of an instrument may be due to factors such as friction, backlash and hysteresis within the system.
Dead time is the time required by an instrument to begin to respond to change in input quantity.
9. Backlash: Backlash may be defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of the
instrument can be moved without causing any motion of next part of the system. The maximum distance
through which one part of the instrument moves without disturbing the other parts. Backlash in an
instrument make provision for lubrication, manufacturing errors, deflection under load, and thermal
expansion.
10.Drift: Drift is an undesirable change in output over a period of time that is unrelated to change in input,
operating conditions. Drift is occurs in instruments due to internal temperature variations, ageing effects
and high stress Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero output. It is
expressed as percentage of full range output.
11.Threshold: Threshold is the minimum value of the input required to cause the pointer to move from zero
position. The minimum value of input which is necessary to activate an instrument to produce an output is
termed its threshold value.
Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument is determined by applying some standard form of
known and predetermined input to its primary element (sensing element) and then study the
output. Generally dynamic characteristics is determined by applying the following three types of
inputs.
(i) Step Input: Step change in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite
change in measured variable.
(ii) Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element follows a measured variable, that
changes linearly with time.
(iii) Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured variable,
the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
(i) Speed of Response: This shows how rapid the instrument responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
(ii) Fidelity: Fidelity of an instrument is the ability of the instrument to reproduce an input signal
faithfully. Fidelity is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured
variable without dynamic error
(iii) Lag: Lag is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured variable. There are two types of measuring lags. These are:
(a)Retardation lag in which the response of an instrument begins immediately after a change
in measured variable has occurred.
(b)Time delay lag in which the response of an instrument begins after a dead time when the
input quantity is applied.
(iv) Dynamic Error: Dynamic error is an error caused by dynamic influences acting on the system
such as vibration, roll, pitch or linear acceleration. This error may have an amplitude and usually a
frequency related to the environmental influences and the parameters of the system itself.
 SOME ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Resistance Box:
Resistance box is a two terminal resistor designed in such a way that
any known resistance can be introduced into the circuit that the
resistance box is part of. In the resistance box, there are plugs that
are used to introduce the desired resistance into the circuit by
removing the plug of the desired resistance. In the resistance box,
the plug select the desire resistance. When the plug is removed from
the resistance box, it must be kept clean free from dust and
impurities as they may introduce stray resistance into the box when
inserted back. The plugs are inserted in a clockwise direction with
slight pressure. Most resistance boxes are made of coils of manganin
resistance wire whose resistivity does not change appreciably with
temperature.

Rheostat: A rheostat consists of a solenoid of bare resistance wire

wound on an insulating cylinder. A sliding contact introduces the
resistance into the circuit and controls the current in the circuit.
Rheostat dissipates certain amount of power in the form of heat and
has maximum current value. The total resistance and maximum
current of each rheostat is inscribed on it.
Standard Resistor:
The standard resistor contains length of resistance wire or a piece of
carbon whose resistance is known. A standard resistor has two
terminals for connecting it into the circuit. Standard resistors come in
different values such as 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 5Ω and 10 Ω. Standard resistors
are used to drop voltages in the circuit.

Potentiometer:
A potentiometer consists essentially of a wooden board and a bare
wire of about 100 cm connected from one end of the board to
another with a metre rule attached under the wire.
Potentiometers are rheostats connected so that the entire resistance
is in the circuit containing the main current. The slider (or jockey) is
able to tap off any fraction of the voltage drop across the resistance.
Galvanometer
The galvanometer is a very sensitive electromagnetic device which
can measure very small of the order of microamperes (μA). The
sensitivity of a galvanometer is high if the instrument shows a large
deflection for a small value of current.
The sensitivity of the galvanometer is affected by (i) the number of
turns in the coil (ii) Area of the coil (iii) Magnetic field strength and
(iii) the magnitude of the couple per unit area.

The galvanometer can be used to measure (i) The value of the

current in the circuit by connecting it in parallel to low resistance
(iii) The voltage in the circuit by connecting it in series with the
high resistance.

The Galvanometer has two terminals, One positive coloured red and
the other negative coloured black. The positive terminal is connected
to the positive sides of the circuit and the jockey is usually connected
to the negative terminal of the circuit.
The Ammeter
The ammeter is an instrument used to measure current an electric
circuit. The unit of electric current is the Ampere (A).

In direct current circuits, the ammeter is usually connected in series

because it has low resistance and do cause any heating in the circuit.
Smaller currents are measured in milli Amperes (mA) or micro
Amperes (Μa). Ammeters that measures in milliamperes are called
milliammeters while microammeters measures in microamperes.

The ammeter has two terminals. The positive terminal usually

coloured red and the negative terminal usually coloured black.
Ammeters are usually connected is series with the circuit elements
because ammeters have low resistance. This enables current to flow
easily so that it can be measured.

Ammeters have different ranges and their ranges determine the

amount of current that they can be used to measure. Some ranges of
the ammeter are 0 – 1A, 0 -2A, 0 -3A, 0 -5A, 0 -10 A.
Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage in an electrical
circuit. The unit of the voltage is the volt (V). Voltage is the potential
difference between two points and it indicates the electrical energy
in the circuit. In an electrical circuit, the voltmeter is always
connected in parallel because it has high resistance.

The voltmeter works on the principle of the galvanometer. It has a

needle which runs over a scale and it has a coil as its internal
structure.

The voltmeter has two terminals: positive (+) usually coloured red
and negative (-) usually coloured black. Voltmeters usually have
different ranges depending on their scales. Some are 0 -1 V, 0 -2 V, 0
– 5 V, and 0 – 10 V.
THE APPLICATIONS OF THE VOLTMETER ARE:
(i) Measurement and monitoring of voltages in electrical circuits
(ii) Voltmeters are used to analyze electrical circuits by measuring the voltage distribution in the
circuit
(iii) Voltmeter are used in tuning and debugging of electronic devices
(iv) Voltmeters are used to measure the power consumption of a device or system
(v) Voltmeters are used to measure the voltages and power supplies to different sections of a circuit
or device.
(vi) Voltmeters are used by electrical Engineers to determine the voltage requirements for correct
operations of electrical circuits.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT COMPONENTS AND THEIR CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
Current electricity is divided into direct current (D.C) and alternating current (A.C). The
direct current is obtained from cells or batteries. It is generally used in laboratories for
practical works and it is not harmful.
The alternating current is the current we get from the mains coming from a generating
station and passing through the grid before it is stepped down and taken to our homes,
industries and workshops. Alternating current is generally harmful as it shocks and can
lead to electrocution.
In electricity circuits, standard symbols are used to represent different elements. The
standard symbols used to represent different circuit elements encountered in electric
circuits are shown below.
 Circuit element Symbol

• Cell or Battery
• Resistor R

• Rheostat or Variable Resistor

• Tapping key
• Plug key
• Key or switch
• Ammeter A
 Circuit element Symbol
V
• Voltmeter
• Galvanometer
mA

• Milliammeter
• Capacitor
• A.C Source
• Diode
• Earthing
 PRECAUTIONS TAKEN IN ELECTRICITY EXPERIMENTS
In order to ensure accurate results in electricity experiments, the following precautions
are usually taken
• Ensure tight connection
• Avoid using insulated part of the wire for connection
• Ensure that the ends of the wires are neat before using the for connection
• Avoid parallax error while taking the reading on the measuring instrument
• Ensure that the positive terminal of the measuring instruments connected to the
positive side of the battery or cell,
• When using the jockey in the potentiometer experiments, do not scrap the wire.
• When measuring out a length of wire, measure out the required length accurately and
use the crocodile clip to clip the required length.
• Always remove the key when readings are not taken.
QUESTIONS