Methods of Data

Collection
What is Data Collection?
• The process by which the researcher
collects the information needed to
answer the research problem.
In collecting the data, the
researcher must decide:
• Which data to collect?
• Who will collect data?
• When to collect data?
• How to collect data?
 What or who is the target population?

Population
Define target population

Census Sample
Complete Enumeration (all) Partial Enumeration (part)

How will data be sourced?

Primary Data Secondary Data

Collection of Data
 Sources of Data
Primary Data Secondary Data
- Include information - Information that has
collected and processed already been collected,
directly by the researcher, processed and reported out
such as observations, by another researcher/
surveys, interviews, and entity.
focus group.
 PRIMARY DATA
• Indirect/Questionnaire Method
• Direct/Interview Method
• Focus Groups
Indirect/Questionnaire Method
This methods of data collection involve
sourcing and accessing existing data that were not
originally collected for the purpose of the study.
The researcher makes use of written questionnaire
to the respondents either by personal or by email.
 Direct/ Interview Method
This methods of data collection use at
least two persons (an interviewer and
interviewee/s) exchanging information. This
method will give us precise and consistent
information because clarifications can be made.
 Focus Group Method
A focus group is a group interview of
approximately six to twelve people who share similar
characteristics or common interests. A facilitator guides
the group based on a predetermined set of topics. The
facilitator creates as environment that encourages
participants to share their perceptions and points of view.
 Secondary Data
• Published report on newspaper and periodicals.
• Financial Data reported in annual reports.
• Records maintained by the institution.
• Internal reports of the government departments.
• Information from official publications.
Characteristics of a Good Question

1. A good question is unbiased.

Questions must not be worded in a manner that will
influence the respondent to answer in a certain way.
An unbiased question is stated in neutral language
and no element of pressure.
Examples:
Biased questions:
1. Do you favor the enrolment procedure employed last
semester which makes long lines shorter?
2. Do you listen to boring classical music?
Unbiased questions:
3. Do you favor the enrolment procedure employed last
semester?
4. Do you like classical music?
2. A good question must be clear and simply stated.
A question that is simple and clear will be easier to
understand and more likely to be answered truthfully.

Examples:
NOT simple question:
What is your academic performance last semester?

Simple question:
What is your average grade last semester?
3. Questions must be precise.
Questions must not be vague. The question should
indicate clearly the manner how the answers must be given.
Example of a vague question:
Do you think male and female are equal?
Example of precise question:
In terms of mathematical ability, do you think male and
female are equal?
 Two Categories of Survey
Questions
1. Open question – an open question allows a free
response.

Example:
What do you think can be done to reduce crime?
2. Closed question – a closed question allows only a fixed
response.

Example: Which of the following approaches would be

most effective in reducing crime? Choose one.
a. Get parents to discipline children more.
b. Correct social and economic conditions in slums.
c. Improve rehabilitation efforts in jails.
d. Give convicted criminals tougher sentences.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
• is the process of selecting samples from
a given population.
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
NON-PROBABILITY PROBABILITY
SAMPLING SAMPLING
- Convenience - Simple Random
- Quota - Systematic
- Snowball - Stratified
- Purposive - Cluster
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling is a process of picking out
people in the most convenient and fastest way to
get reactions immediately.
- This method can be done by telephone interview
to get the immediate reactions of a certain group of
sample for a certain issue.
Quota Sampling – there is specified number of
persons of certain types is included in the sample.

Snowball Sampling – the process starts by

identifying someone who meets the criteria for
inclusion in the study. The respondent is then asked
to recommend others whom they may know who
also meet the criteria.
Purposive Sampling – it is based on
certain criteria laid down by the
researcher. People who satisfy the
criteria are interviewed. It is used to
determine the target population of
those who will be taken for the study.
 Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling – basic sampling
technique where a group of subjects (a sample) is
selected for study from a larger group (a
population). The most common technique for
selecting simple random sample is by using strips
of paper (fish bowl technique).
Systematic Sampling – divide frame of
N individuals into groups of k
individuals: k = N/n. Randomly select
one individual from the 1st group. Then
select every k individual thereafter.
th
Stratified Sampling – divide population
into subgroups (called strata) according
to some common characteristic. A sample
random sample is selected from each
subgroup. Samples from subgroups are
combined into one.
Cluster Sampling – population is divided into
several “clusters”, each representative of the
population. Then a simple random sample of
clusters is selected.
- All items in the selected clusters can be used,
or items can be chosen from a cluster using
another probability sampling technique.
 Examples: Identify the type of sampling used in the
following statements:

1. An engineer selects every 50th cell phone from the

assembly line for careful testing and analysis.
2. A reporter writes the name of each senator on a separate
card, shuffles the cards, and then draws five names.
3. A mathematics professor selects 18 men and 18 women
from each of four classes.
Methods of Data
Presentation
 Methods of Presenting Data
1. Textual Method – a narrative description of the data
gathered.
2. Tabular Method – a systematic arrangement of
information into columns and rows.
3. Graphical Method – an illustrative description of the
data.
 The Frequency Distribution Table
(FDT)
An FDT is a statistical table showing the
frequency or number of observations contained in each of
the defined classes or categories.
 Parts of a Statistical Table
1. Table Heading – includes the table number and the title of the
table.
2. Body – main part of the table that contains the information or
figures.
3. Stubs or Classes – classification or categories describing the data
and usually found at the left most side of the table.
4. Caption – designations or identifications of the information
contained in a column, usually found at the top most of the
column.
 Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Staff
Perception of the Leadership Behavior of the Table
Administrator Heading
Perception of Frequency
Leadership Behavior Caption
Strongly Favorable 10
Favorable 11

Stubs/Classes Slightly Favorable 12 Body

Slightly Unfavorable 14
Unfavorable 22
Strongly Unfavorable 31
TOTAL 100
 Types of Frequency Distribution Table

1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT – a frequency

distribution table where the data are grouped
according to some qualitative characteristics, data
are grouped into non numerical categories.
Example:
Table 2: Frequency Distribution of the Gender
of Respondents of a Survey

Gender of Respondents No. of Respondents

Male 38
Female 62
Total 100
 Construct the FDT of the given set
The following are the favorite colors of 30 students.
Blue red yellow red green blue
Red red yellow red green blue
Orange whitewhite orange blue blue
Yellow whiteorange blue green blue
Red blue orange white blue green
Frequency Distribution of 30 Students’
Favorite Colors.
COLORS TALLY FREQUENCY
RED IIII - I 6
BLUE IIII - IIII 9
YELLOW III 3
ORANGE IIII 4
WHITE IIII 4
GREEN IIII 4
TOTAL 30
2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution
table where the data are grouped according to some
numerical or quantitative characteristics.
Table 3. Frequency Distribution for the
Weights of 50 Pieces of Luggage
Weight (in kg) Frequency
7-9 2
10-12 8
13-15 14
16-18 19
19-21 7
TOTAL 50
 Steps in the Construction of a Frequency
Distribution Table
Step 1: Determine the Range (R)
Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value
Step 2: Determine the number of classes (k)
k=
Where N is the total number of observations in the data set.
Step 3: Determine the class size (c) by calculating first
the preliminary class size c’.
c’ =
Step 4: Enumerate the classes or categories.
Step 5: Tally the observations.
Step 6: Compute the values in other columns of the
FDT as deemed necessary.
Age (in years) of 40 Patients Confined at a Certain
Hospital
5 5 34 7
10 15 13 51
20 23 21 25
25 24 27 31
31 26 32 33
33 36 35 38
42 42 40 43
44 45 45 50
 Steps in the Construction of a Frequency
Distribution Table
Step 1: Determine the Range (R)
Range = 57 – 5 = 52
Step 2: Determine the number of classes (k)
k = = = 6.32 = 6 classes
Where N is the total number of observations in the data set.
Step 3: Determine the class size (c) by calculating first
the preliminary class size c’.
c’ = = = 8.67 or 9 interval
Step 4: Enumerate the classes or categories.
Step 5: Tally the observations.
Step 6: Compute the values in other columns of the
FDT as deemed necessary.
 Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 Patients
Confined at a Certain Hospital
Age (in years) Tally Frequency
5 – 13 IIII 5
6 classes
14 – 22 IIII 5
and
9 interval 23 – 31 IIII - IIII 9
32 – 40 IIII - III 8
41 – 49 IIII - I 6
50 – 58 IIII - II 7
TOTAL 40
Other Columns in
the FDT
1. True Class Boundaries (TCB)
a. Lower True Class Boundaries (LTCB)
LTCB = LL – ½ unit of measure
b. Upper True Class Boundaries (UTCB)
UTCB = UL + ½ unit of measure
Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 Patients
Confined at a Certain Hospital
Age (in years) Frequency LTCB UTCB
5 – 13 5 4.5 13.5
14 – 22 5 13.5 22.5
23 – 31 9 22.5 31.5
32 – 40 8 31.5 40.5
41 – 49 6 40.5 49.5
50 – 58 7 49.5 58.5
TOTAL 40
 2. Class Mark (CM)
- Midpoint of the class interval where the observations
tend to cluster about
CM = ½ (LL + UL) or CM = ½ (LTCB + UTCB)
Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 Patients
Confined at a Certain Hospital
Age (in years) Frequency LTCB UTCB CM
5 – 13 5 4.5 13.5 9
14 – 22 5 13.5 22.5 18
23 – 31 9 22.5 31.5 27
32 – 40 8 31.5 40.5 36
41 – 49 6 40.5 49.5 45
50 – 58 7 49.5 58.5 54
TOTAL 40
3. Relative Frequency (RF)
- The proportion of observations falling in a class
and is expressed in percentage
%RF = x 100%
 Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 Patients
Confined at a Certain Hospital
Age (in years) Frequency LTCB UTCB CM RF%
5 – 13 5 4.5 13.5 9 12.5
14 – 22 5 13.5 22.5 18 12.5
23 – 31 9 22.5 31.5 27 22.5
32 – 40 8 31.5 40.5 36 20
41 – 49 6 40.5 49.5 45 15
50 – 58 7 49.5 58.5 54 17.5
TOTAL 40 100
4. Cumulative Frequency (CF)
a. Less than CF (<CF) – total number of observations
whose values do not exceed the upper limit of the
class.
b. Greater than CF (>CF) – total number of
observations whose values are not less than the lower
limit of the class.
 Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 Patients
Confined at a Certain Hospital
Age Freq. LTCB UTCB CM RF% <CF >CF
5 – 13 5 4.5 13.5 9 12.5 5 40
14 – 22 5 13.5 22.5 18 12.5 10 35
23 – 31 9 22.5 31.5 27 22.5 19 30
32 – 40 8 31.5 40.5 36 20 27 21
41 – 49 6 40.5 49.5 45 15 33 13
50 – 58 7 49.5 58.5 54 17.5 40 7
TOTAL 40 100
 5. Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF)

a. Less than RCF (<RCF) - total number of Relative

Frequency whose values do not exceed the upper
limit of the class.
b. Greater than RCF (>RCF) - total number of
Relative Frequency whose values are not less than
the lower limit of the class.
 Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 Patients
Confined at a Certain Hospital
Age Freq. LTCB UTCB CM RF% <CF >CF <RF >RF
5 – 13 5 4.5 13.5 9 12.5 5 40 12.5 100
14 – 22 5 13.5 22.5 18 12.5 10 35 25 87.5
23 – 31 9 22.5 31.5 27 22.5 19 30 47.5 75
32 – 40 8 31.5 40.5 36 20 27 21 67.5 52.5
41 – 49 6 40.5 49.5 45 15 33 13 82.5 32.5
50 – 58 7 49.5 58.5 54 17.5 40 7 100 17.5
TOTAL 40 100
Graphical Presentation of Data
a graph or a chart is a device for showing
numerical values or relationships in pictorial form.
 Common Types of Graph
1. Scatter Graph – a graph used to present measurements
or values that are thought to be related.
2. Line Chart – graphical presentation of data especially
useful for showing trends over a period of time.
3. Pie Chart – a circular graph that is useful in showing
how a total quantity is distributed among a group of
categories. The “pieces of pie” represent the proportions
of the total that fall into each category.
4. Column and Bar Graph – like pie charts, column
charts and bar charts are applicable only to grouped data.
They should be used for discrete, grouped data of ordinal
or nominal scale.
 Graphical Presentation of the
Frequency Distribution Table
1. Frequency Histrogram – a bar graph that displays the
classes on the horizontal axis and the frequencies of the
classes on the vertical axis, the vertical lines of the bars
are erected at the class boundaries and the height of the
bars correspond to the class frequency.
Frequency Histogram
2. Relative Frequency Histogram – a graph that
displays the classes on the horizontal axis and the relative
frequencies on the vertical axis.
3. Frequency Polygon – a line chart that is
constructed by plotting the frequencies at the class
marks and connecting the plotted points by means
of straight lines, the polygon is closed by
considering an additional class at each end and the
ends of the lines are brought down to the
horizontal axis at the midpoints of the additional
classes.
Frequency Polygon
 Example 2: A manufacturer is investigating the
operating life (in minutes) of laptop computer batteries.

130 125 145 132 126 123 146 126

164 126 130 135 132 131 152 129
145 147 129 136 133 129 155 136
140 152 127 143 139 130 137 146
131 132 126 142 145 132 148 132
Activity 2: Construct a Frequency Distribution for the
weights of 50 pieces of Luggage

7 8 10 12 12 14 27 29 28
29
18 8 17 24 26 30 32 36 38 37
10 22 21 15 10 33 37 18 38 40
11 21 27 22 33 40 35 38 24 18
7 15 20 25 27 31 32 36 40 38
END OF PRESENTATION!!