Design and Analysis of

Algorithms (12.1,12.2,12.3)

Structures for Dynamic Sets

 Dynamic Sets
● Sets are as fundamental to computer science as they are to
mathematics
● Whereas mathematical sets are unchanging, the sets
manipulated by algorithms can grow, shrink, or otherwise
change over time.
● We call such sets dynamic.
● Algorithms may require several different types of operations
to be performed on sets.
● For example, many algorithms need only the ability to insert
elements into, delete elements from, and test membership in a
set. A
 Dynamic Sets
● A dynamic set that supports these operations is called a
dictionary.
● Elements of a dynamic set
■ In a typical implementation of a dynamic set, each element
is represented by an object whose fields can be examined
and manipulated if we have a pointer to the object.
■ Some kinds of dynamic sets assume that one of the object’s
fields is an identifying key field.
■ If the keys are all different, we can think of the dynamic set
as being a set of key values.
 Dynamic Sets
■ The object may contain satellite data, which are carried
around in other object fields but are otherwise unused by
the set implementation
■ It may also have fields that are manipulated by the set
operations; these fields may contain data or pointers to
other objects in the set.
Operations on dynamic sets
■ Operations on a dynamic set can be grouped into two
categories
○ queries, which simply return information about the set,
○ and modifying operations, which change the set.
 Dynamic Sets
● SEARCH(S, k): A query that, given a set S and a key value k,
returns a pointer x to an element in S such that key[x] = k, or
NIL if no such element belongs to S.
● INSERT(S, x): A modifying operation that augments the set S
with the element pointed to by x. We usually assume that any
fields in element x needed by the set implementation have
already been initialized.
● DELETE(S, x): A modifying operation that, given a pointer x
to an element in the set S, removes x from S. (Note that this
operation uses a pointer to an element x, not a key value.)
● MINIMUM(S): A query on a totally ordered set S that returns
a pointer to the element of S with the smallest key
 Dynamic Sets
● MAXIMUM(S): A query on a totally ordered set S that
returns a pointer to the element of S with the largest key
● SUCCESSOR(S, x) A query that, given an element x whose
key is from a totally ordered set S, returns a pointer to the next
larger element in S, or NIL if x is the maximum element
● PREDECESSOR(S, x): A query that, given an element x
whose key is from a totally ordered set S, returns a pointer to
the next smaller element in S, or NIL if x is the minimum
element.
● 12, 34, 10, 45, 23, 76, 33, 48, 55, 15
 Binary Search Trees
● Binary Search Trees (BSTs) are an important
data structure for dynamic sets
● In addition to satellite data, elements have:
■ key: an identifying field inducing a total ordering
■ left: pointer to a left child (may be NULL)
■ right: pointer to a right child (may be NULL)
■ p: pointer to a parent node (NULL for root)
 Binary Search Trees

● BST property:
○ The keys in a binary search tree are always stored in
such a way as to satisfy the binary-search-tree
property: (where x is a node in BST)
key[left(x)]  key[x]  key[right(x)]
● Example: F
B H

A D K
 Inorder Tree Walk
● What does the following code do?

● A: prints elements in sorted (increasing) order

● This is called an inorder tree walk (This algorithm is so
named because the key of the root of a subtree is printed between the
values in its left subtree and those in its right subtree.)
■ Preorder tree walk: print root, then left, then right
■ Postorder tree walk: go left, then right, then print
 Inorder Tree Walk

● 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8. (in order)
 Inorder Tree Walk
● Analysis:
■ It takes θ(n) time to walk an n-node binary search
tree, since after the initial call, the procedure is
called recursively exactly twice for each node in
the tree—once for its left child and once for its
right child
 Operations on BSTs: Search
● A common operation performed on a binary search
tree is searching for a key stored in the tree
● Given a key and a pointer to a node, returns an
element with that key or NULL:
TreeSearch(x, k)
if (x = NULL or k = key[x])
return x;
if (k < key[x])
return TreeSearch(left[x], k);
else
return TreeSearch(right[x], k);
BST Search: Example
 BST Search: Example
● The procedure begins its search at the root and traces a path
downward in the tree,
● For each node x it encounters, it compares the key k with key[x].
● If the two keys are equal, the search terminates
● If k is smaller than key[x], the search continues in the left
subtree of x
● Symmetrically, if k is larger than key[x], the search continues in
the right subtree.
● The nodes encountered during the recursion form a path
downward from the root of the tree, and thus the running time of
TREE-SEARCH is O(h), where h is the height of the tree.
 Operations on BSTs: Search
● Here’s another function that does the same (iterative version):

TreeSearch(x, k)
while (x != NULL and k != key[x])
if (k < key[x])
x = left[x];
else
x = right[x];
return x;
On most computers, this version is more efficient.
 Operations of BSTs: (Minimum)
● An element in a binary search tree whose key is a minimum
can always be found by following left child pointers from the
root until a NIL is encountered
● The following procedure returns a pointer to the minimum
element in the subtree rooted at a given node x.
● TREE-MINIMUM(x)
1 while left[x] ! = NIL
2 do x ← left[x]
3 return x
 Operations of BSTs: (Minimum)
● If a node x has no left subtree, then since every key in the right
subtree of x is at least as large as key[x], the minimum key in
the subtree rooted at x is key[x].
 Operations of BSTs: (Maximum)
● The pseudocode for TREE-MAXIMUM is symmetric.
● TREE-MAXIMUM(x)
1 while right[x] != NIL
2 do x ← right[x]
3 return x
● Analysis
■ Both of these procedures run in O(h) time on a tree of
height h since, as in TREESEARCH, the sequence of nodes
encountered forms a path downward from the root.
 Operations of BSTs: (Successor)
● The following procedure returns the successor of a node x in a
binary search tree if it exists, and NIL if x has the largest key
in the tree.
 Operations of BSTs: (Successor)
● The code for TREE-SUCCESSOR is broken into two cases
● If the right subtree of node x is nonempty, then the successor
of x is just the leftmost node in the right subtree, which is
found in line 2 by calling TREE-MINIMUM(right[x]).

■ For example, the successor of the node with key 15 in Figure 12.2 is
the node with key 17.
 Operations of BSTs: (Successor)
● On the other hand, if the right subtree of node x is empty and x has
a successor y, then To find y, we simply go up the tree from x until
we encounter a node that is the left child of its parent; this is
accomplished bylines 3–7 of TREE-SUCCESSOR..
● In Figure 12.2, the successor of the node with key 13 is the node
with key 15.
Operations of BSTs: (Successor)
 Operations of BSTs: (Successor)
● The running time of TREE-SUCCESSOR on a tree of height h
is O(h), since we either follow a path up the tree or follow a
path down the tree.
● The procedure TREE-PREDECESSOR, which is symmetric to
TREE-SUCCESSOR, also runs in time O(h).
 Operations of BSTs: Insert
● Adds an element x to the tree so that the binary
search tree property continues to hold
● The basic algorithm
■ Like the search procedure above
■ Insert x in place of NULL
■ To insert a new value v into a binary search tree T , we use
the procedure TREEINSERT.
■ The procedure is passed a node z for which key[z] = v,
left[z] = NIL, and right[z] = NIL.
■ It modifies T and some of the fields of z in such a way that
z is inserted into an appropriate position in the tree.
Operations of BSTs: Insert
 Operations of BSTs: Insert
● Just like the procedures TREESEARCH and ITERATIVE-
TREE-SEARCH, TREE-INSERT begins at the root of the tree
and traces a path downward.
● The pointer x traces the path, and the pointer y is maintained
as the parent of x.
● After initialization, the while loop in lines 3–7 causes these
two pointers to move down the tree, going left or right
depending on the comparison of key[z] with key[x], until x is
set to NIL
● This NIL occupies the position where we wish to place the
input item z. Lines 8–13 set the pointers that cause z to be
inserted.
 Operations of BSTs: Insert
● Like the other primitive operations on search trees, the procedure
TREE-INSERT runs in O(h) time on a tree of height h. (h=log(n))
■ Inserting an item with key 13 into a binary search tree
■ Lightly shaded nodes indicate the path from the root down to the position
where the item is inserted.
■ The dashed line indicates the link in the tree that is added to insert the item.
 Operations of BSTs: Deletion
● The procedure for deleting a given node z from a binary
search tree takes as an argument a pointer to z.
● The procedure considers the three cases shown in Figure 12.4.
● 1) If z has no children, we modify its parent p[z] to replace z
with NIL as its child.
● 2) If the node has only a single child, we “splice out” z by
making a new link between its child and its parent.
● 3) Finally, if the node has two children, we splice out z’s
successor y, which has no left child and replace z’s key and
satellite data with y’s key and satellite data.
Operations of BSTs: Deletion
 Operations of BSTs: Deletion
● In lines 1–3, the algorithm determines a node y to splice out.
● The node y is either the input node z (if z has at most 1 child)
or the successor of z (if z has two children).
● Then, in lines 4–6, x is set to the non-NIL child of y (if y has
one child or y is successor), or to NIL if y has no children(in
the case when y has no child and in successor case).
● The node y is spliced out in lines 7–13 by modifying pointers
in p[y] and x.
● Finally, in lines 14–16, if the successor of z was the node
spliced out, y’s key and satellite data are moved to z,
overwriting the previous key and satellite data.
● The node y is returned in line 17 so that the calling procedure
can recycle it via the free list.
 Operations of BSTs: Deletion
● The procedure runs in O(h) time on a tree of height h.
Operations of BSTs: Deletion
Operations of BSTs: Deletion