THE MACROACQUISITION OF

ENGLISH: NEW
REPRESENTATIONS IN THE
LANGUAGE
Chapter#8
Macroacquisition and Language Change

■ The chapter discusses how the process of macroacquisition leads to language change,
particularly through indigenization or nativization. This process is linked with the
formation of bilingual speech communities. There are two types of macroacquisition,
Type A and Type B, which have different outcomes on language variety development.
Type A macroacquisition results in the development of new language varieties, while
Type B does not necessarily lead to such changes.
The multicompetent speech community
and language change
Types of Multicompetence
■ Multicompetence in a speech community comes in two forms:

■ Identical Linguistic Expressions: The community shares a common first language (L1).
■ Different Linguistic Expressions: The community does not share a common L1.
Language Use Differences
■ The way a second language (L2), such as English, is used differs based on whether the bilingual speech
community shares an L1 or not:

■ Shared L1 Communities: These communities can use code-switching and code-mixing because members can
easily switch between their shared L1 and the L2.
■ Non-Shared L1 Communities: These communities cannot use code-switching in the same way because they
do not have a common L1 to fall back on. Instead, they often rely entirely on the L2, which leads to language
change and the creation of new language varieties.
Code Switching and Code Mixing
■ Type A Communities (Non-Shared L1): These communities express their
multicompetence through language change. Since they don't share a common L1, they
innovate within the L2, leading to the development of new English varieties.
■ Type B Communities (Shared L1): These communities utilize code-switching and code-
mixing because they have a common L1. This makes communication of shared
knowledge easier and reduces the need for creating new language varieties within the
L2.
Implications
■ Type A: Bilingual speech communities without a shared L1 must adapt by using the L2
in new ways, leading to stable language change and the formation of new language
varieties.
■ Type B: These communities maintain their multicompetence by switching between their
L1 and L2, preserving their original languages while still incorporating elements of the
L2.
Macroacquisition as Community Formation
and the Question of Language Change
■ Community Formation and Identity:

■ Type A Macroacquisition: Involves creating new communities (e.g., in South Africa), where the new language
variety becomes part of the community's identity.
■ Type B Macroacquisition: Involves existing communities that do not need to form new identities around the
language, so the language doesn't become a central part of their identity.
■ Language and Identity:

■ Type A Communities: The new language variety helps form a shared identity, potentially stabilizing as an
institutionalized variety for future learners.
■ Type B Communities: These communities already have an established identity and are less likely to adapt the
new language as part of their core identity.
■ Homogenization and Norms:

■ The quest for a shared identity can lead to homogenization, where community norms stabilize the
language.
■ Example: In Zimbabwe, unique syntactic variations in English help construct a Zimbabwean cultural
identity.
■ Historical Examples:

■ African-American Vernacular English: Developed among enslaved African Americans to maintain group
identity and conceal meanings from slaveholders.
■ James Baldwin highlighted how this language, forged from immense experiences, remains a crucial tool
for the survival and identity of African Americans.
■ Implications for Language Change:

■ When macroacquisition aligns with forming a social and political identity, it influences the language
variety, embedding it deeply within the community's identity and potentially leading to its stabilization
and institutionalization.
The Restandardisation Toward Black South
African English: A Case Study in Macroacquisition
■ Restandardization in South Africa:
Traditional Standard South African English (StSAE), used by English mother-tongue and second-language
speakers, originated from British colonization.
Black South African English (BSAE) is emerging as a new standard due to the Black majority and the end of
apartheid.
■ Influence of Political and Social Changes:
The rise of Black political power and the overthrow of apartheid are driving changes in the standard form of
English.
BSAE reflects the identity, solidarity, and aspirations of Black South Africans.
■ Educational Context and Language Acquisition:
English is taught in schools, starting with the mother tongue, and typically used in formal settings like political
meetings.
■ Most Black South Africans learn English as a second language, not their first.
Language and Identity in Liberation Movement:
During the anti-apartheid struggle, elements of BSAE began appearing in political discourse.
■ Code mixing (using elements of African languages within English) symbolized African nationalism
and was used to communicate effectively with the Black population.
■ Institutionalization of BSAE:
As the liberation movement grew, BSAE became institutionalized in political speech and writings.
Terms like "Sons and Daughters of Afrika" replaced traditional English addresses, embedding African
identity within the language.
Semantic Extension:
Words like "defiance" took on new meanings within the context of the liberation struggle, reflecting
the central role of BSAE in political movements.
The Defiance Campaign led to new uses and forms of the word, illustrating the language's adaptation
to the struggle.
■ Historical Impact:
The Soweto uprising of 1976 highlighted the importance of English as a tool for political expression
and resistance among Black students.
 (THE) WORLD (OF)
ENGLISH: ENGLISHES IN
CONVERGENCE
Chapter no#9
Constructing the Speech Community of
World English
■ The concept of "speech community" plays a dual role in the convergence of World
English. It operates at multiple levels, allowing individuals to belong to various
overlapping communities. These communities can be national or transnational, such as
African Americans in the U.S. or Arabic speakers across the Middle East. Despite
historical ties between language and nation, communities also form based on shared
communication and subjective knowledge, not just national boundaries. Examples include
global religious communities and the international economic and political units, such as
the United Nations and World Trade Organization. The rise of global media and
international communication, particularly through the Internet, fosters a world speech
community. This community, characterized by cosmopolitan urban centers and cultural
pluralism, accommodates diverse identities and transcends local cultural assumptions.
Learning English connects non-native speakers to this global community, facilitating
international interaction and participation in a shared econocultural system.
The Centripetal Force of World Language
Convergence
■ This section discusses how English, as a world language, is kept unified by a central
force despite its many global variations. Unlike languages that have split into entirely
separate languages (like Latin into the Romance languages), the different types of
English around the world stay connected and maintain their "Englishness." This is due
to continuous interaction in global economic, cultural, and technological fields
The Ideological Legacy of Colonialism: Core
Languages and Native Speakers
■ Legacy of Imperial Domination: The legacy of anglophone nation imperial domination isn't the
development of World English but the tendency to view English varieties through a
center/periphery dichotomy imposed by colonialism.

■ Perceived Relations: Colonial origins influence perceived relations between languages, rather than
the actual linguistic relations. This can lead to denigration or denial of the status of non-native
English varieties.

■ Traditional Model vs. Current Framework: The traditional model places the native speaker as the
standard, with non-native users seeking affiliation in the native speaker community. The current
framework introduces a bidirectional model, recognizing the interplay between local and
international contexts.
■ Bidirectional Model: In the bidirectional model, each speech community participates in
both local and world English speech communities, affecting and being affected by each
other. There's no hierarchy among speech communities on linguistic grounds.

■ Implications: English as a national language is just one variety of World English among
many. National distinctions dissolve in the world language domain, leading to important
pedagogical implications.
DECENTERING ENGLISH
APPLIED
LINGUISTICS
Chapter no#10
■ The conclusion discusses the relationship between World English, English Language
Teaching (ELT), and applied linguistics. ELT has played a crucial role in the spread of
English, and teachers are central to language policy and spread. World English is
defined as a phase in English language history marked by its transformation from a
mother tongue to a global language used by non-native speakers. Varieties of English
result from the process of language spread and change, not from imperfect learning.
The Historical Context of English
Language Teaching
■ This passage explores the historical context of English Language Teaching (ELT),
particularly its development in relation to the spread of English to British colonies. ELT
emerged from these colonial contexts, with theories and practices often tested and
developed in these territories. Contrary to some views of linguistic imperialism, the role
of non-native English-speaking teachers in spreading English globally is highlighted.
The passage also discusses how notions of "authenticity" and the ideal native speaker
teacher have influenced ELT, challenging the authority of non-native English-speaking
teachers. Overall, it emphasizes the significant contributions of non-native teachers to
the international history of English and critiques the dominance of Western
methodologies in ELT.
Justifying the Dominant World View of
ELT
■ This passage criticizes the dominant view in English Language Teaching (ELT) that
privileges native English speakers and focuses on teaching English in a mother-tongue
environment. It argues that this view doesn't reflect the reality of how English is often
learned today, which is often in non-native settings and with diverse English varieties.
The assumption that native speakers make the best teachers of English lacks empirical
evidence and is challenged by scholars. Instead, the passage suggests that non-native
bilingual teachers may be equally or more effective. Overall, it questions the validity of
traditional ELT methods and calls for a more inclusive approach that reflects the
diversity of English learners and teachers worldwide.
Speech Community Bilingualism and
ELT
■ This paragraph argues that the current frameworks in Second Language Acquisition
(SLA) fail to address the complexities of learning English as a world language. It
suggests that SLA models often overlook the distinction between individual and speech
community bilingualism, ignoring the diverse experiences of English learners. The
traditional model of the "transplanted learner" doesn't account for learners who begin
studying English in non-native settings before encountering it as a mother tongue. The
paragraph calls for a reevaluation of SLA frameworks to consider the sociohistorical
context of language learning, emphasizing the active role of non-native English
speakers in shaping World English. Overall, it highlights the importance of
understanding the historical context of language acquisition for the future development
of English as a global language.