DEPARTMENT : AIT-MANAGEMENT

Subject Name- Research Methodology for Managers

Subject Code: 21BLH-653BBH-673/BFH-673/BHH-656
Faculty Name: Dr. Vipin Sharma

Research Analysis DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 • Tabulation of Data & Data
Preparation,
Data Analysis • Descriptive statistics,
• Correlation, Regression,
• Hypothesis Testing
• Parametric Tests and Non Parametric
Course Outcomes Tests: Definition and use.
CO Title Level
Number • Parametric Tests - Z Test, T Test,
CO2 It includes discussions on sampling techniques,
research designs and analysis using SPSS.
Remember • F Test- One way ANOVA,
CO3 Appreciate the components of scholarly writing and
evaluate its quality.
Apply • Chi Square Test.
• Report writing and Bibliography

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 Processing and Analysis of Data

Data Analysis is process, the technique through which meaning, is attached to the
responses given by the respondents/subjects.

Does all research requires Data Analysis?

Common perception about data analysis: Only Quantitative data is analyzed

Reality: Data analysis is required for both Qualitative and Quantitative research
The technique of analysis may be different but all kind of information (Data) needs to
be analyzed for giving meaning to those information

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 Processing and Analysis of Data

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is
essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for
making contemplated comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing
implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected
data so that they are amenable to analysis.
Common perception about data analysis: Only Quantitative data is analyzed
Reality: Data analysis is required for both Qualitative and Quantitative research
The technique of analysis may be different but all kind of information (Data) needs
to be analyzed for giving meaning to those information

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 Processing and Analysis of Data

Technically speaking, processing implies

1. Questionnaire Checking
2. Editing,
i. Field Editing
ii. Central Editing
3. Coding,
4. Classification
i. Classification according to attributes
ii. Classification according to class-intervals:
a) How may classes should be there? What should be their magnitudes?
b) How to choose class limits?
c) How to determine the frequency of each class? 5
 Processing and Analysis of Data

5. Tabulation
6. Data presentation
7. Data Cleaning
8. Data Adjusting

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 Why Data Analysis?

In Quantitative Research data analysis is done to figure out the range of responses.
The data analysis enables to translate the responses into numbers which is essential
in any quantitative research.

In Qualitative Research data analysis is done to give meaning to the data which is
gathered using different research methods. In Qualitative Research in data analysis
the focus is more on attaching meaning to the information.

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 Analysis of Data in Qualitative Research

In Qualitative Research data is collected by using Case Study Method, Observation Method,
Qualitative Interview method, Focus Group Interviews and similar such qualitative methods.
The analysis of Qualitative data is not expressed in numerical form.
In Qualitative research, the data is analyzed in terms of stated experience of the respondents.
(statement, experience etc.)
The data is analyzed to give meaning attached to the statements given by the respondent, meaning
attached to other people or environment. (Example: Research on Hindu Muslim relation in
Muzaffarnagar district post riots.)
In the Qualitative research method, the researcher spoke to few Muslims in three different
localities, mixed locality, Muslim minority locality and also in Muslim majority locality.

The statements given by the respondents in these three different situations may be somewhat
different and will have some impact of the situation and the people living in the locality.

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 Analysis of Data in Qualitative Research

For recorded interviews, it has no meaning if the researcher reproduces the entire interview or
speech in his/her research.
The emphasis should not only be on what respondents said, but also on the pause, hesitation, where
respondent slows down. The researcher has to look for meaning of those pauses, hesitation, slowing
down, keeping mum at times etc.
The focus is not on how many respondents were interviewed but on the quality of the interview, on
the variety of meanings, attitudes, perceptions, interpretations attached to each statement.

Limitations:
(1) Very often the analysis of Qualitative data is subjective.
(2) The same data could be interpreted considerably different by different researchers

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Analysis of Quantitative Data: How and why
The Quantitative Research encounters the issue of Data analysis much more compared to the
Qualitative method. Here technology comes into play.
The data collected in Qualitative research can be analyzed without the use of computer, but the data
collected in Quantitative study possibly cannot be analyzed without the use of computer.

Why is computer (some data analysis software) essential for Quantitative Data Analysis?

Surveys is always about big numbers, so one has to handle large number of responses. Such large
number of responses cannot be analyzed without use of computer. Necessary for getting fast results.
Useful for finding correlation between two or more variables
It is also useful for more sophisticated analysis, Correlation, Regression, T-Test, ANOVA etc.
It is also useful for data storage

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Steps in Analysis of Quantitative Data

All responses obtained through interviews whether using open ended or closed ended questions must
be coded.
What is Coding?
It is the process of converting the written, descriptive responses into numerical.
The next step in data analysis is checking the coded data.
After coded data is checked, it is entered into the computer using different software.
Different packages for data analysis
Excel, SAS,SUDAAN, SPSS
How does these packages work?
The very first analysis of any statistical data is the frequencies.
Next step is to look at correlations between two or more variables, by running cross table, regression
or correlation .Useful in response classification , categorization Calculating the missing responses.

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 Correlation
Correlation: The linear relation between two are more variable is known as correlation. Correlation analysis is
used to measure strength of the association (linear relationship) between two connected variables. It can also
disclose the directions of sympathetic movements in variables.
Positive or direct correlation
If the two variables increase or decrease together in the same direction, they have a positive correlation.
e.g. The height and weight of group of person. The yield of crap and amount of rain fall.
Negative or inverse correlation
If, increases in one variable are associated with decreases in the other, they have a negative correlation.
e.g. The price and demand of a commodity. The volume and pressure of prefect gas.
Properties: (i) it is pure number.
(ii) It is independent of unit.
(iii) It is independent of change of origin and scale of data.
(iv) It lies between -1 to +1.
(v) It is zero order.

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 Regression
Regression: The functional relation between two are more variables is known as regression.
Regression analysis is used to:
(i) Predict the value of a dependent variable based on the value of independent variable
(ii) Explain the impact of changes in an independent variable on the dependent variable

Dependent variable: the variable we wish to explain

Independent variable: the variable used to explain the dependent variable. It is a controlled
variable non random in nature.
Only one independent variable, x
Relationship between x and y is described by a linear function
Changes in y are assumed to be caused by changes in x

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 Population Linear Regression

The population regression model:

Population Random
Population Independent Error
Slope
y intercept Variable term, or
Coefficient
Dependent residual

y  β0  β1x  ε
Variable

Linear component Random Error

component

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 Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis
What is Hypothesis ?
Meaning and definition
•Any statement about population or population parameters is known as hypothesis. It may be true or
may not be true.
•A research hypothesis is a formal statement about the population or expectation about the outcome
of a study.
•A tentative and a testable statement about a relationship involving two or more variables is known
as hypothesis.
Confusion/Question/ Problem/Research/Thesis
•What is a research question.
•How does it link to the literature review and conceptual framework.
•Link between a research question and a hypothesis.
•Types of research questions.
•ladder of research questions.
•Solutions makes thesis.

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Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis
Nature of Hypothesis
• A hypothesis “ It may prove to be correct or incorrect ”.
• In any event, however, it leads to an empirical test .
• A hypothesis is not held to be true until proven.
• When proven a HYPOTHESIS becomes a THESIS.
Concept of Hypothesis
Theoretical construct
Problem
Hypothesis
Theoretical construct
Solution

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 Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis
Need of hypothesis
• To Identify the data to be collected.
• To organize the data most effectively.
• To draw an inference about the population.
For example
(i) A given medicine cures 95% of the patient taking it.
(ii) A particular species of fish has life of 5 years.
(iii) In case of child birth, there is an equal chance of meal and female birth.
Sources of Hypothesis
• History.
• Analysis.
• Findings of other studies.
• Deduction from theories.
• Value-orientation of culture.
For example
(i) Intuition, hunches, knowledge,
(ii) curiosity, experience and other sources.
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 Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis
Characteristics of Hypothesis
• Empirically testable
• Closest to observable things
• Conceptually clear
• Specific
• Should have theoretical orientation
• Power of prediction
• Related to available measuring techniques

Steps of hypotheses formulation

•Literature review
•Deduction or Induction
•Determine all the alternative means
•Operationalization of concepts
•Determine variables
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 Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis
•When the assumption or statement that occurs under certain condition is formulated as scientific hypothesis,
we construct criteria by which a scientific hypothesis is either rejected or provisionally accepted
•For example : The yield of a new paddy will be 3500 kg /ha. Scientific Hypothesis.
•In Statistics language it may be stated that
•Yield of paddy is distributed normally with mean 3500 kg/ha.
Type of hypothesis
Simple hypothesis
When a hypothesis specifies all the parameters of a probability distribution, it is known as simple hypothesis.
i.e. gives all information
Composite hypothesis
If the hypothesis specifies only some of the parameters known as composite hypothesis. i.e. some information is
missing. Now test for complete information.

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 Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (H0): No significant difference
Difference between observed and expected is zero. H0, is the claim that is initially assumed to be true.
According to Professor R.A. Fishier: Null hypothesis is the hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection,
Under the assumption that is true.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1) Difference between observed and expected is not zero.
H1, is the assertion that is contrary to H0 .Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is
known as alternative hypothesis.
Test are basically two type
Small sample test: Sample size (n) < 30.
Test of Significance, T-test and F-test
Large sample Test: Sample size (n) ≥ 30.
Test of Significance, Chi Square -test and Z-test
Types of errors in hypothesis testing
Type I error: Reject the null hypothesis when it is true,
Type II error: Accept the null hypothesis when it is wrong.
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 Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis
Procedure for testing of hypothesis:
(i) Null hypothesis: Set up the Ho.
(ii) Alternative Hypothesis: Set up the H1.
(iii) Level of significance: Choose the appropriate level of significance(1%, 5%, 10%) on the basis of risk in
sample.
(iv) Test Statistics: Compute test hypothesis.
(v) Conclusion: Compare the computed value and calculated value.
• If computed value > Tabulated value we reject Ho.
• If computed value < Tabulated value we accept Ho.

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 Hypothesis testing
T-test [William Gosset (1908)]
(x  )
t
s/ n
• T-test is small sample test (<30)(not<5).
• It is called student-t test (pen name).
• Degree of freedom (n-1).
• All observations of the sample is independent.
• Data are normally distributed.
• Population standard deviation is not known.
• Sample size is given (sample standard deviation is known)
• Range -∞ to ∞.

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 Hypothesis testing
Example based on T-Test
Problem: A manufacture of dry cell claimed that life of their cell is 24 hours. A sample of 10 cells had mean
life is 22.5. hours with a standard deviation of 3.0 hours. On the basis of available information, test whether the
claim of manufacturer is correct. [Given to.05,9=2.26]

Solution: Assuming that the lifetime of cell is normally distributed.

Here we test Ho: µ=24, Vs H1: µ≠24.
n=10, µ=22.5, S=3.
( x   ) (24  22.5)
t   1.50
s/ n 3 / 10

Ttab. >Tcal
We accept the null hypothesis.
i.e. there is no significant differences.

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 Hypothesis testing
Z –test [R A Fisher(1923)]
(x  )
z
/ n
• All observation of sample is independent
• Normally distributed
• Sample size sufficiently large(>=30)
• Population standard deviation is known
• Correlation coefficient is not zero
• Test for significance of single mean , difference between two means & its proportions.
• Z-test has only one critical points i.e. 1.96 for 5% in two tail test

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 Hypothesis testing

Example based on Z- Test

Problem: A random of 400 flower lines has average length 10 cm. Can this be regarded a sample from large
population with mean of 10.2 cm and standard deviations of 2.25 cm.

Solution: Assuming that the lifetime of cell is normally distributed. Here we test Ho: µ=10.2, Vs Ha: µ≠10.2,
n=400, S.D.=2.25.
( x   ) (10  10.2)
Z   1.770
 / n 2.25 / 400

Ttab. >Tcal.
We accept the null hypothesis.
i.e. there is no significant differences.

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 Hypothesis testing
Chi-square Test [Karl Pearson (1920)]
 (oi  ei ) 2 
  
2

 ei 
•Chi-square test is non-parametric test
•It can be used for test of goodness of fit
•It is sampling analysis for testing for significance of population variance
•It is used in SRS method lies between 0 to 1
•Sample size is large (n>50)
•Sample is independent, cell frequency linear
•Expected frequency will not same(e<5)

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 Hypothesis testing
Problem Based on Chi-square test.
A large electronic firm which hires many handicapped workers wants to determine whether their handicapped
effect such workers performance on the basis of sample data given below. Is it reasonable to believe that the
handicapped has no effect on workers performance?
Workers Above Average Average Below Average
Handicapped 37 113 32
No handicapped 23 97 28
How to perform chi-square test of in defence on the basis of a contigency table?
Solution:
O E (O-E) (O-E)^2 [(O-E)^2]/E
37 33 4 16 0.484
113 116 -3 9 0.077
32 33 -1 1 0.030
Chi- Square Cal= 0.591, Chi- Square Tab=5.991
Chi- Square Tabulated > Chi- Square Calculated
Null hypothesis is accepted.

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 Hypothesis testing
F-test
 n1  2
  s1
S12
 n1  1 
F  2 
S2  n2  2
  s2
 n2  1 
It is ratio of two chi- square variates with their respective degree of freedom.
It gives comparison of two chi-square variate.

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 Hypothesis testing
Problem based on F-test
Problem: Pumpkin were grown the experimented condition two random samples off 11 and 9 pumpkin. Show
that sample standard deviation of their weight as 0.8 and 0.5 respectively assuming that the weight of
distribution test the hypothesis is that two variance are equal . That two agents the alternative that they are not
10% level.
F tab=3.5
F cal=2.5
We accept the null hypothesis.

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 How to Write

• Of all aspects of studying, writing is probably the most challenging.

• That is because when you write down an account of ideas for other people to read you have to
explain yourself convincingly and effectively.
• So writing makes you struggle with words and what you are trying to convey.
• In other words, it forces you to think, to plan your ideas and to convey them in an effective
manner.
• That is what makes it so demanding. When you write you are really putting ideas to use.
• So writing tends to be both the most demanding and the most rewarding part of any course of
study.

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 What is a Report?

A report is a very formal document that is written for a variety of purposes in all the disciplines.
• The final and the last step in any research is to make report of the findings to make the research
and the study accessible to all.
• By this report, the research sponsors, government, students, academicians can get to learn and
understand the research related work.
• Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/ or written.
• The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
• The task of report writing must be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care and s/he may
seek the assistance and guidance of the experts.

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 Language of Research Report

Minimum Requirements
• Clarity : Confusing and ambiguous statements to be avoided
• Precision: Generalities and vague statements to be avoided
• Appropriacy: Comprehensive not only to academics but to all intended readers
• Completeness: All issues should be given adequate emphasis
• Objectivity: Subjectivity and emotionality should be avoided
• Fairness: Presentation of findings in a fair and unbiased manner
• Verifiability: Information presented must be readily verifiable
• Impersonality: Report should be presented in the third person

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 Language of Research Report
Writing Style
• Poorly written report, difficult to understand is of no value
• Neatly typed, free of spelling and typographical errors
Clarity
• It is essential to be precise and clear
• Think about intended audience
• Presentation in orderly and logical sequence
• For producing a more organized report-use an outline
• After completing first draft- carefully read (grammar & spell checks)
• Get feedback from others on report- ask them to read critically and suggest improvements
• Write several drafts till you have satisfactory final product

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 Writing

Clear Writing Sentences Paragraphs

• Word Selection • Limited Content • Unity
• Familiar • Word Economy • Shortness
• Short • Emphasis • Topic Sentences
•Non-technical • Cutting Details
• Unity
• Strong • Movement
• Arrangement
• Concertive
•Active
•Non-camouflage
•Precise

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 Structure of Report
 Title of Report :Concise heading indicating what the report is about
 Contents: List of major sections and headings with page numbers
 Abstract/Synopsis : Concise summary of main findings
 Introduction :Why and what you researched
 Literature Review: (sometimes included in the Introduction) - Other relevant research in this area
 Methodology : What you did and how you did it
 Results: What you found
 Discussion: Relevance of your results, how it fits with other research in the area
 Conclusion : Summary of results/findings
 Recommendations (sometimes included in the Conclusion) :What needs to be done as a result of your
findings
 References or Bibliography :All references used in your report or referred to for background information
 Appendices : Any additional material which will add to your report
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 References v/s Bibliography

• Bibliography is a list of all the Books, Journals, Monographs, Theses, Documents, Data Sets etc that we
consulted during our research work.
•It is not necessary that they be cited in the text of the report.
•References indicate that we have borrowed ideas, information, text etc. from those documents.
Bean, Susan (1981): “Towards a Semiotics of ‘Purity' and ‘Pollution’ in India”, American Ethnologist, 8(3), pp
575-95.
Beteille, Andre (1992): The Backward Classes in Modern India (Delhi: Oxford University Press).
Datta, Srilekha (2008): “Gunas (Qualities) in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Ontology” in PK Sen (ed.), Philosophical
Concepts Relevant to Sciences in Indian Tradition (New Delhi: CSC).
Pandian, MSS (2008): Brahmin and Non-brahmin: Genealogies of the Tamil Political Present (New Delhi:
Permanent Black).
Desai, IP (1976): Untouchability in Rural Gujarat (Mumbai: Popular Prakashan).
Dumont, Louis (1988): Homo Hierarchicus (New Delhi: Oxford University Press).
Foucault, Michel (1994): Archaeology of Knowledge (London: Routledge).
Guru, Gopal (1996): Dalit Cultural Movement in Maharashtra (Mumbai: Vikas Adhyayan Kendra).

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 Assessment Pattern

Evaluation Component Weightage

1st hourly test 9%
2nd hourly test 9%
Research and Analysis Component (Field 15%
Project / Assignement / Case Analysis)
Quiz 10%
Class Participation 5%
Attendance 2%
End Semester 50%

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 Applications
Ability to apply to scientific research process for the given research
problem including identify various sources of information for literature
review and data collection. Appreciate the components of scholarly
writing and evaluate its quality.

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 References

Bryman, Alan & Bell, Emma (2018): Business Research Methods (Fifth Edition),
Oxford University Press.
Rubin, Allen & Babbie (2016): Essential Research Methods for Social Work,
(Fourth Edition), Cengage Learning Inc., USA.
Kothari, C.R. & Gaurav G. (2019): Research Methodology (Fourth Edition), New
Age International Publishers.
Naresh Malhotra (2012): Marketing Research, (Fifth Edition) McGraw Hills.

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THANK YOU

For queries
Email: vipin.e9155@cumail.in