Computer Communication

Network

1
Computer Communication Network
Text Books:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data
Communications and Networking”
2. Andrew Tenenbaum, “Computer
Networks”
3. Kurose & Ross, “Computer Networking- A
top Down Approach featuring the Internet”
4. William Stallings, “computer Networks and
Cryptography”
2
Objectives
1. To explain the basic concept of computer
communication network.
2. To explain the computer network layer.
3. To explain IP addressing scheme.
4. To explain network process.
5. To study Hardware aspect of network
communication.
6. To make selection of IEEE LAN standards.
7. To explain network security & 3
administration.
Outcome
By the end of course, the students shall be able to:
1. Understand the requirement of theoretical &
practical aspect of computer network.
2. Understand the network traffic in computer
network.
3. Describe various protocols used in network.
4. Describe the concept of computer network
security.
5. Understand the different wired & wireless LAN
standards & Routers.
4
 Introduction to
Computer Networks
Unit I
Uses of computer Network, Network
Software-design Issues for layers, Service
primitives and relationship of services to
Protocols, Reference models-OSI & TCP/IP,
network architectures introduction,
Example of networks-X.25, Frame Relay &
ATM, Protocols and Standards. 5
Computer Networks
A computer network is an interconnected
collection of autonomous computers.
The goals of a computer network include:
• Sharing: programs (O.S., applications), data,
equipment (printers, disks).
• High reliability: users are more immune
from hardware/software failure.
• Less cost: It is easy to increase the capacity by
adding new machines.
• Communications medium: Users have
6
access to email and the Internet
Computer Networks

7
Computer Networks
Uses of Computer Networks
 Business Application
 Resource Sharing: programs (O.S., applications), equipment
(printers, disks).
 Information Sharing: data (Client-server model)
 Home Application
 Access to remote information (www, news paper, business,
cooking, health, history, etc..)
 Person-to-person communication (text messaging, twitter,
etc…)
 Interactive entertainment (Facebook, WhatsApp, hike, etc…)
 Electronic commerce (pay bill, manage bank a/c, online
sale/purchase, etc…)
 Mobile Users
 Mobile computers/note book computers
 PDAs 8
Network Hardware
The user machines in a network are called
hosts.
The hosts are connected by a subnet
which carries messages between hosts.
The subnet is made up of transmission
lines (trunks, channels, circuits) and
switching elements (computers).
Computer Networks can be classified by
two dimensions:
 Transmission Technology
 Scale 9
Network Hardware
There are two types of transmission technology
(subnet design):
Point-to-Point subnets: Point-to-point links
connect individual pairs of machines. (ex. Postal
Service, mobile).
 Unicasting – one sender and exactly one receiver
Broadcast subnets: In this system a message is
broadcast over the network and all machines have the
possibility of receiving the message (ex. LAN, WAN).
 Broadcasting – received and processed by every
machine on the network
 Multicasting – received and processed by subset of
machines 10
Network Hardware
Broadcast Sub-networks: These are typically
configured as either a bus or a ring network. They
can be further classified as Static or Dynamic.
In static broadcast subnet the transmission is done
turn by turn.
Advantage: No collision of message and hence
no corruption of message
Limitation: In-sufficient use of network time
In dynamic broadcast subnet the system allows any
station to transmit at any time the network is free of
traffic.

11
Network Hardware
Point to Point Networks: The second type of
subnet, the point to point subnet, is mainly
found in Wide Area Networks (WANs).
If possible, the point to point subnet transmits
directly to the relevant station. If no direct
route is available, it will send the message to a
"switch" which re-transmits the message to
the destination.
The best known example of this type of
network is the telephone network (Public
Switched Telephone Network or PSTN).
12
Network Hardware
In Point to point model, nodes either employ
circuit switching or packet switching.
In circuit switching,
a dedicated communication path is
allocated between A and B, via a set of
intermediate nodes.
the data is sent along the path as a
continuous stream of bits.
In packet switching,
data is divided into packets which are sent
from A to B via intermediate nodes. 13
each intermediate node temporarily stores
Network Hardware

14
Network Hardware
An alternative criterion for classifying
networks is by scale. Distance is
important as a classification metric
because different technologies are used at
different scales.
Personal Area Network (meant for
one person)
Longer range Network – LAN, MAN,
WAN
Internetwork
15
Network Topologies
Computer networks can be configured in a number
of ways.
Messages are broken into smaller units called
packets for transmission on a network.
 Bus/Ring configuration: Each packet of
information is sent off around the ring on its own.
 Complete network: In this configuration each
station is connected directly to every other station
on the network.
 Loop: Each packet is transmitted along the line
until it encounters a computer.
 Tree, Intersecting loop and Star configurations
are same as above. 16
Network Topologies

17
Personal Area Networks (PAN)
PANs let devices communicate over the
range of a person (ex. Computer and its
peripherals).
PANs can also be built with other
technologies that communicate over short
ranges, such as RFID, Bluetooth, etc..
These short range technologies use
master-slave
paradigm.
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Local Area Networks (LAN)

19
Local Area Networks (LAN)
 A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within
and nearby a single building like a home, office or factory.
 LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and
consumer electronics to let them share resources (ex.
printers) and exchange information.
 In another configuration it can be used as wireless LAN
consisting of a radio modem and an antenna (Access Point).
 Typically, wired LANs run at speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps,
have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make
very few errors.
 Newer LANs can operate at up to 10 Gbps.
 Various topologies are possible for LAN (bus-based, ring-
based N/W)
 Channel allocation can be Static or dynamic
20
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN
and a WAN.
It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
It is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and
have endpoints spread over a city or part of city
(ex. Cable tv, high speed internet access WiMax).
It may be private or public.
It support data & voice.
It has one or more cable and does not contain
switching element.
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Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

22
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
A WAN spans a large geographical area, often a
country or continent.
It is available in two configurations namely
switched WAN and poit-to-point WAN.
The switched WAN connects the end systems,
which usually comprise a router
(internetworking connecting device) that
connects to another LAN or WAN (ex. ATM).
The point-to-point WAN is normally a line
leased from a telephone or cable TV provider
that connects a home computer or a small LAN
to an Internet service provider (lSP). 23
Wide Area Networks (WAN)

24
Internetworks
A collection of interconnected networks is called
an internetwork or internet.
Connecting a LAN and a WAN or connecting two
LANs is the usual way to form an internetwork.
People on one n/w can communicate with people
on different n/w.
It is widely used to connect universities,
government offices, companies and also private
individuals.
Applications: Email, News, Remote login, file
transfer, etc…
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Network Software
The earlier computer networks were
designed with the hardware as the main
concern and the software as an
afterthought.
Now-a-days software are of prime
importance and are highly structured.

26
Network Software

27
Protocols and Standards
A Protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications
A Protocol defines: what is communicated,
how it is communicated, & when it is
communicated
There are three elements of a protocol:
Syntax: The term syntax refers to the
structure or format of the data,
meaning the order in which they are
presented.
Semantics: The word semantics refers to 28
Protocols and Standards
Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communication.
Standards are developed through the cooperation of
standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
The various standard creation committees are:
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA) 29
Design Issues for Layers
There are some key design issues occur in
computer networks are present in several
layers
Addressing
Error control
Flow control
Multiplexing
Demultiplexing
 Routing
30
Design Issues for Layers
Addressing: Every layer needs a mechanism
to identify senders and receivers.
Error Control: Its an important issue
because physical communication circuits are
not perfect.
 Many error detecting and error correcting
codes are available.
 Both sending and receiving ends are must
agree to use any one code.
Flow Control: This property leads to
mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting 31
and then reassembling messages.
Design Issues for Layers
Routing: When there are multiple paths
between source and destination, a route must
be chosen.
Multiplexing & Demultiplexing: These two
are must for improving the n/w system.
Quality of Service: Most networks must
provide service to applications that want this
real-time delivery at the same time with high
throughput.
Security: The last major design issue is to
secure the network by defending it against
32
different kinds of threats.
Interfaces and Services
The function of each layer is to
provide services to the layer above it.
The active elements in each layer are
called entities.
The entities in layer n implement a
service used by layer n+1.
The layer n is called service provider
& layer n+1 is called the service user.
33
Service Primitives
A Primitive means operation
A service in computer network consists of
a set of primitives
The primitives are to be used by a user to
access the service
The primitives asks the service to do some
action or to report on an action
The primitives are system calls
The primitive varies for different services

34
Service Primitives

35
THE NEED FOR STANDARDS
Over the past couple of decades many of
the networks that were built used different
hardware and software implementations,
as a result they were incompatible and it
became difficult for networks using
different specifications to communicate
with each other.
To address the problem of networks being
incompatible and unable to communicate
with each other, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 36
The OSI Reference
Model

Note that the

OSI model
itself is not a
network
architecture
because it does
not specify the
exact services
and protocols to
be used in each
layer. It just tells
what each layer
37
should do.
The OSI Reference Model
 The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers, each
specifying particular network functions.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers.
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and
physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow
of data from end to end through the network.
 The upper four layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated
more toward services to the applications.
 Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before network
38
transit.
OSI Group

The OSI model

consists of
seven layer is
further
grouped
according to
their function
into three
groups;
• Network
Group
• Transport
Group 39
The OSI Reference Model

40
The Physical Layer
This is lowermost layer of the OSI model. It provides
the electrical and mechanical interface to the
network medium (cable).
This layer consists of simply the wire or media by
which the network signals are conducted. Physical
layer includes hardware (wire, plugs and sockets
etc.).
In other words, this layer represent the physical
aspects of the network such as cable and connectors.
The basic functions of this layer are handles voltages,
electrical pulses, connectors and switches so that
data can be transmitted from one network device to
another. 41
The Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides access to the networking
media and physical transmission across the media
and this enables the data to locate its intended
destination on a network.
The data link layer provides reliable transit of data
across a physical link by using the Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses.
The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a
hardware or data link address in order for multiple
stations to share the same medium and still uniquely
identify each other.
Concerned with network topology, network access,
error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and 42
flow control.
The Network Layer
This layer establishes the route between
the sending and receiving stations.
It handles the routing of data (sending in
the right direction to the right destination
on outgoing transmissions and receiving
incoming transmission at the packet). The
layer does routing & forwarding of data.
The network layer also defines how to
fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
43
This layer uses the Internet protocol (IP).
The Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for constructing stream of
data packets, sending and checking for correct delivery.
 This layer manages the end to end control (for example
determining whether all packets have arrived) and error
checking.
 The transport layer ensures data is successfully sent and
received between two nodes.
 If data is sent incorrectly, this layer has the responsibility to
ask for retransmission of the data.
 Specially it provides a reliable network independent
message interchange service to the application group.
 This layer acts as an interface between the bottom and top
three layers.
 This layer uses of TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) &
44
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
The Session Layer
The session layer defines how to start, control
and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
This includes the control and management of
multiple bi-directional messages using
dialogue control.
It also synchronizes dialogue between two
hosts' presentation layers and manages their
data exchange.
The session layer offers provisions for efficient
data transfer.
45
This layer uses POP, TCP/IP protocols.
The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer ensures that the
information that the application layer of
one system sends out is readable by the
application layer of another system.
If necessary, the presentation layer
translates between multiple data formats
by using a common format.
Provides encryption and compression of
data.
In this layer POP, SMTP, FTP protocol are
46
used.
The Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to
the user.
It provides network services to the user’s
applications.
It differs from the other layers in that it does not
provide services to any other OSI layer, but rather,
only to applications outside the OSI model.
Examples of such applications are spreadsheet
programs, word processing programs, and bank
terminal programs.
The application layer establishes the availability of
intended communication partners, synchronizes and
establishes agreement on procedures for error 47
recovery and control of data integrity.
The TCP/IP Reference Model
A set of protocols allowing communication across
diverse networks
It is named from two of the most important
protocols in it:
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
the Internet Protocol (IP).
The TCP/IP protocol suite is the engine for the
Internet and networks worldwide.
The main design goal of TCP/IP was to build an
interconnection of networks, referred to as an
internetwork, or internet, that provided universal
communication services over heterogeneous 48
physical networks.
The TCP/IP Reference Model

49
Network Interface Layer (Link)
Responsible for sending and receiving
TCP/IP packets on the network medium
(physical/Data Link)
Applicable LAN technologies
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI (Fiber
Distributed Data Interface) etc.
Applicable WAN technologies
X.25 (old), Frame Relay, ATM etc.
Note that some technologies such as ATM
and FDDI may be used at both the WAN
50
and the LAN levels
Internet Layer
Packaging
Addressing
Routing
IP
 A connectionless unreliable protocol that is part of
the TCP/IP protocol suite
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
 Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
 Diagnostics and error reporting
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
 Management of group multicast 51
Internet Layer
The internetwork layer, also called the
internet layer or the network layer, provides
the “virtual network” image of an internet
(this layer shields the higher levels from the
physical network architecture below it).
Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important
protocol in this layer. It is a connectionless
protocol that does not assume reliability from
lower layers.
IP does not provide reliability, flow control, or
error recovery. These functions must be
provided at a higher level. 52
Transport Layer
 Sequencing and transmission of packets
 Acknowledgment of receipts
 Recovery of packets
 Flow control
 In essence, it engages in host-to-host transportation of
data packets and the delivery of them to the application
layer.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): provides
connection-oriented reliable data delivery, duplicate
data suppression, congestion control, and flow control.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): provides
connectionless, unreliable, best-effort service. UDP is
used by applications that need a fast transport
53
mechanism and can tolerate the loss of some data.
Application Layer
The application layer is provided by the program
that uses TCP/IP for communication.
The interface between the application and
transport layers is defined by port numbers and
sockets.
This layer contains all the high level protocols:
virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP)
and electronic mail (SMTP).
The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one
machine to log into a distant machine and work
there.
The file transfer protocol provides a way to more
54
data efficiency from one machine to other.
Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP Models
The OSI & TCP/IP models are more or less similar.
The layer functionality is similar.
The two models can be distinguished based on
concepts:
 Service; Interfaces; Protocols
OSI: Each layer in OSI performs some service for
the layer above it. A layer’s interface tells the
processes above it how to access it. The peer
protocol used in the layer are the layer’s own
business. It can use ant protocol it want to.
TCP/IP: The TCP/IP model did not clearly
distinguish between service, interface and 55
protocol.
Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP Models
The OSI model was devised before the
invention of protocols, hence they are not
biased towards one particular set of it.
The OSI model have 7 layers while
TCP/IP have only 4 layers.
The OSI model supports both
connectionless and connection-oriented
communication in the network layer, but
only connection-oriented communication
in the transport layer.
56
The TCP/IP model has only one
X.25 Network
X.25 is a standard for WAN communications that
defines how connections between user devices and
network devices are established and maintained.
It is typically used in the packet-switched networks
(PSNs) of common carriers, such as the telephone
companies.
Subscribers are charged based on their use of the
network.
The devices used in X.25 network fall into three
general categories:
 data terminal equipment (DTE),
 data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE),
 packet-switching exchange (PSE) 57
X.25 Network

58
X.25 Network
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) devices are end
systems that communicate across the X.25 network.
They are usually terminals, personal computers, or
network hosts, and are located on the premises of
individual subscribers.
Data communication Equipment (DCEs) are
communications devices, such as modems and packet
switches that provide the interface between DTE
devices and a PSE, and are generally located in the
carrier's facilities.
Packet-switching Exchange (PSEs) are switches that
compose the bulk of the carrier's network. They
transfer data from one DTE device to another through
59
the X.25 PSN.
X.25 Network
Packet Assembler/Disassembler
The packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) is
a device commonly found in X.25 networks.
The PAD is located between a DTE device
and a DCE device and it performs three
primary functions:
 buffering (storing data until a device is
ready to process it),
 packet assembly,
 and packet disassembly
60
X.25 Network
The X.25 protocol suite maps to the lowest three
layers of the OSI reference model. The layers are:
• Physical layer: Deals with the physical interface
between an attached station and the link that
attaches that station to the packet-switching
node. X.21 is the most commonly used physical
layer standard.

61
X.25 Network - Protocol Suite
Frame (Link) layer: Facilitates reliable transfer of
data across the physical link by transmitting the data
as a sequence of frames. Uses Link Access Protocol
Balanced (LAPB), bit oriented protocol.
Packet layer: Responsible for end-to-end connection
between two DTEs. Functions performed are:
Establishing connection
Transferring data
Terminating a connection
Error and flow control
With the help of X.25 packet layer, data are
transmitted in packets over external virtual
circuits. 62
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM is an international standard for cell relay
wherein information for multiple service types,
such as voice, video, or data, is conveyed in small,
fixed-size cells.
ATM networks are connection-oriented.
Technically, it can be viewed as an evolution of
packet switching.
ATM integrates the multiplexing and switching
functions, is well suited for bursty traffic (in
contrast to circuit switching), and allows
communications between devices that operate at
different speeds.
63
ATM Protocol Architecture

64
ATM Protocol Architecture
Physical layer of the ATM protocol
architecture involves the specification of a
transmission medium and a signal encoding
scheme.
The main functions of the ATM physical layer
are as follows:
 Cells are converted into a bit stream,
 The transmission and receipt of bits on the
physical medium are controlled,
 ATM cell boundaries are tracked,
 Cells are packaged into the appropriate
65
types of frames for the physical medium.
ATM Protocol Architecture
ATM Layer
 The ATM layer provides routing, traffic
management, switching and multiplexing
services.
 It processes outgoing traffic by accepting 48-
byte segment from the AAL sub-layers and
transforming them into 53-byte cell by addition
of a 5-byte header.
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
 Mapping the higher-layer information into ATM
cells to be transport over an ATM network.
 Collecting information from ATM cells for
delivery to higher layers. 66
ATM Protocol Architecture
The ATM reference model consists of the
following planes, which span all layers:
Control—This plane is responsible for generating
and managing signaling requests.
User—This plane is responsible for managing the
transfer of data.
Management—This plane contains two
components:
 Layer management manages layer-specific
functions, such as the detection of failures and
protocol problems.
 Plane management manages and coordinates
67
functions related to the complete system.
ATM Network Interfaces
An ATM network consists of a set of ATM
switches interconnected by point-to-point
ATM links or interfaces.
ATM switches support two primary types of
interfaces: UNI and NNI.
The UNI (User-Network Interface) connects
ATM end systems (such as hosts and routers)
to an ATM switch.
The NNI (Network-Network Interface)
connects two ATM switches.
UNI and NNI can be further subdivided into
68
public and private UNIs and NNIs.
ATM Cell Format
ATM transfers information in fixed-size units called
cells.
Each cell consists of 53 octets, or bytes.
The first 5 bytes contain cell-header information,
and the remaining 48 contain the payload (user
information).
Small, fixed-length cells are well suited to transfer
voice and video traffic because such traffic is
intolerant to delays that result from having to wait
for a large data packet to download, among other
things.

69
Frame Relay
Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN
protocol that operates at the physical and data
link layers of the OSI reference model.
Frame Relay originally was designed for use
across Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) interfaces
Frame Relay is based on packet-switched
technology.
The following two techniques are used in
packet-switching technology:
 Variable-length packets
70
 Statistical multiplexing
Frame Relay

71
Frame Relay
Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall
into the following two general categories:
 Data terminal equipment (DTE)
 Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)
Examples of DTE devices are terminals,
personal computers, routers, and bridges.
DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking
devices. The purpose of DCE equipment is to
provide clocking and switching services in a
network, which are the devices that actually
transmit data through the WAN. In most cases,
these are packet switches. 72