SPEED OF LIGHT

MEASUREMENTS
Presented by Amanda Chandler-Hair
 BASICS
• Speed of light symbol: c
• Units: km/s
• Accepted value: 299,792,458m/s
• Determined by light travelling in an interval 1/299,792,458 in a vacuum
• Light travels in waves just like sound
 HISTORICAL
MEASUREMENTS
• 1638: Galileo theorized c was at least 10x speed of sound. Method: lanterns
• 1676: Roemer c=214,000 km/s. Method: Jupiter’s moons
• 1726: Bradley c=301,000 km/s. Method: stellar aberration
• 1849: Fizeau c=315,000 km/s. Method: toothed wheel
• 1862: Foucault c=298,000 km/s. Method: rotating mirror
• 1879: Michelson c=299,910 km/s. Method: rotating mirror
• 1907: Rosa and D’Orsay c=299,788 km/s. Method: electromagnetic constants
• 1926: Michelson c=299,796 km/s. Method: rotating mirror
• 1947: Essen and Gordon-Smith c=299,792 km/s. Method: Cavity resonator
• 1958: Froome c=299,792.5 km/s. Method: Radio Interferometer
• 1973: Evanson et al. c=299,792.4574 km/s. Method: Laser interferometry
 GALILEO’S LANTERNS

Galileo stood on the top of one hill and shined

a lantern toward another hill where a friend
was standing. When the other person saw the
light, they flared their lantern.

Galileo determined that light travels too fast to

be determined.
JUPITER’S SATELLITES AND STELLAR ABERRATION
• Both use light travelling from astronomical
bodies
• Roemer noticed that the periods of Jupiter’s
moons were shorter as Earth approached
them
• c/v=P/(2πτ)
• c=speed of light, v=Earth’s orbital velocity,
P=orbital period and τ=time for light to
cross the radius of an orbit
• Bradley used stars and vector addition
• -v/c=tan(Θ-ϕ)
• When Θ is 90º
 TOOTHED WHEEL
• Fizeau set a mirror 8km from a light source
• He then shone a light at the mirror and set
the mirror to shine the beam through a
cogwheel
• Fizeau knew the distance from the mirror to
the wheel, the rotation speed, and the
number of teeth on the wheel
• c=4nNd
• Where n=# of teeth, N=revs/s and
d=distance from mirror to observer
 ROTATING MIRRORS
• This is the method used by Foucault and
Michelson.
• This method is similar to the toothed wheel
method.
• Differences: the rotating mirror that
simultaneously reflects the light at a fixed
mirror and to the observer.
• Known values: rotation speed and distance
between mirrors
• c=2ωh/Θ
• Where h=distance between mirrors,
ω=rev/s and Θ=angle between the beams of
light at the fixed mirror
 ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS
• Relates the vacuum permittivity and vacuum permeability to c.
• Uses Maxwell’s theory: c2=1/(ℇ0μ0)
• ℇ0 was determined using the capacitance and dimensions of a capacitor
• Using ℇ0=1/(c2 μ0)=0.2654 F/m
• μ0 is 4πx10^(-7) Tm/A
 CAVITY RESONATOR
• Louis Essen and A.C. Gordon-Smith
used a cavity resonator with known
cavity dimensions to calculate c.
• Using electromagnetic waves in a
vacuum, they devised the formula c=fλ
to find the speed of light.
• This method finds the wavelength using
a known frequency. Think standing
waves:
• f=ω/2π=v/λ
 RADIO INTERFEROMETER
• Froome used radio and microwaves to
produce an electromagnetic wave
• Split into two
• Froome found the wavelength of light
• c=fλ
• Where f is 72GHz
 LASER INTERFEROMETRY

• Used lasers through mirrors

• Evanson and his colleagues found the
wavelength
• Used a set frequency
• c=fλ
 Marshmallows in
MARSHMALLOWS the microwave
IN A MICROWAVE
Experiment:
1. Layer marshmallows in a microwave safe
dish and cook on low heat.
2. Heat until there are a few noticeable melted
spots. Do not fully melt the marshmallows.
3. The distance, provided it is repeated, will
equal half a wavelength.
4. Now find the frequency of your microwave.
Hint: it should be on the back.
Measuring the
5. Use c=fλ melted spots
 LET’S SEE WHO PAID ATTENTION

Why didn’t Galileo get a

What value for the speed value when he The standard was
of light was accepted in experimented with determined by how light
1983? lanterns? travelled in a vacuum.
a) Distance between
a) 315,000,000m/s lanterns was too short True
b) 299,910,000m/s b) Time of day
c) 299,792,458m/s c) His friend fell asleep False
waiting
d) 4,203,769m/s
d) He dropped his lantern
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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