Lecture 3 Metals

LECTURE 3 : METALS
CE 8202: CONSTRUCTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS I 1

Metals are the backbone of all engineering projects
and products. Various metals are used in one form or
the other. Metals are found as compounds like oxides,
sulphates, carbonates, phosphates.
These compounds are known as ores. Ores are treated

to remove the impurities and get the metal
CE 8202: CONSTRUCTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 2

MATERIALS I
Iron ore has optimum iron content of 60 – 70%.
 Different iron ores, distinguished by the
chemically bound oxygen:
 Fe3O4 (magnetite)
 Fe2O3 (red hematite/red iron ore)
 Fe2O3 .3H2O (brown hematite/brown iron ore)

MATERIALS I
Other compounds exist within the iron ore, including:
 Al2O3 (aluminates)
 CaO (lime)
 MgO (magnesia)
These compounds constitute the non-ferrous matrix in
the production of ferrous metals.

MATERIALS I
Solid at room temperature except mercury, which
is liquid
 Very high melting point
 Shiny when they cut
 Good conductor of heat and electricity
 Usually strong and malleable, so they can be
hammered into shape

MATERIALS I
MATERIALS I
Ferrous Metals
 Principle element is pig iron, cast iron, steel, wrought
iron.
 Metals come from ore, "minerals" ore consists of metal
 Mining
 open pit
 underground

MATERIALS I
Definitions:
 PIG IRON:
Impure product of the reduction of iron
ore in the blast furnace. It has a carbon
content of 2.5 -4%.The iron is cast into
small ingots/bricks, which are also called pigs.

MATERIALS I
Properties of pig Iron
It is hard and brittle, as such it is neither ductile or
malleable
It is difficult to bend
 It melts easily. The fusion temperature is 1200oC
 It can be hardened but not tempered (impart
increased strength and the property )

MATERIALS I
Properties of pig Iron cont…
 It can be magnetized
 It has very high compressive strength but weak in
tension
 It does not rust
 It can not be welded

MATERIALS I
Uses of pig Iron
 cast iron, wrought iron and mild steel are obtained
by refining pig iron
 Because of its high compressive strength , it is
used in columns, base plate, door brackets, wheels
and pipe works

MATERIALS I
CAST IRON:
Product of re-melting selected grades of pig iron and casting
into shape in sand moulds.
Same carbon content as pig iron.
Uses
 It is used for casting rain water pipes, gratings (grills),
railings balustrades( staircase side railing).
 Because of high compressive strength it is used in making
columns, supports for heavy machinery, carriage wheels etc.
 It is the basic material for the manufacturing of Wrought
iron and steel

MATERIALS I
WROUGHT IRON :
Relatively refined iron, still containing some
amount of impurities. It has a low carbon content
making it workable when it is hot but hardens very
rapidly when cooled rapidly
 If all carbons and other element are oxidized
and may be left with 0.25% of carbon, then we
obtain wrought iron
 It is by far the purest form of iron in which the
total impurities do not exceed 0.5%

MATERIALS I
PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT IRON
Its structure is fibrous and has silky (smooth) luster (shine)
 It is ductile and malleable
 It is tough and can withstand shocks and impacts better than
cast iron
It can be forged and welded
 It rusts easily
It is unaffected by saline water
It cannot be permanent magnetized
MATERIALS I
USES OF WROUGHT IRON
It is used in making roof sheets, corrugated sheets,
rods, gas and water pipes, boiler tubes, and
ornamental iron works such as grill gates, railing and
window guards
Gates

MATERIALS I
MATERIALS I
STEEL:
An alloy of iron and carbon, containing up to 1.5%
carbon.
 The essential difference between cast iron and steel is
the amount of their carbon contents.
 Steel goes on becoming harder and tougher with the
increase in its carbon contents.
 Up to a content of 1.5% all the carbon gets into
chemical combination with iron and none of its exist in
free state.
 If carbon contents increase beyond 1.5% then it does
not combine with iron and is present as free graphite. At
this stage metals falls in a category of cast iron.

MATERIALS I
Classification of steel
Depending upon carbon content steel is classified as

follows
Steel Carbon content
Dead steel < 0.15%
 Mild steel 0.15% to 0.3%
 Medium carbon steel 0.3% to 0.8%
 High carbon steel 0.8% to 1.5%
High carbon steel with carbon percentage over 1% is

also known as cast steel or carbon tool steel
MATERIALS I
MILD STEEL
Steel where carbon content is 0.15 to 0.3% is called
mild steel, low carbon steel or soft steel.
It is ductile and malleable.
It is more tough and more elastic than wrought iron
and cast iron,
it corrodes easily
It is equally strong in tension and compression

MATERIALS I
USES OF MILD STEEL
In construction work it is chiefly used as rolled
structural sections like I-section, T-section, angle iron.
Mild steel round bars are extensively being used as
reinforcement in reinforced cement concrete.
Plain and corrugated sheets of mild steel are used as
roof covering.
It is also used in the manufacturing of various tools
and equipment, for rail track, transmission towers and
industrial building

MATERIALS I
Tee

MATERIALS I
High Carbon Steel
In this steel the carbon content is between 0.8% to
1.5%. High percentage of carbon renders (provide)
its harder and tougher
 It is more tough and harder than mild steel
 Comparatively it is more stronger in compression
than in tension
 It withstand shock and vibration

MATERIALS I
Uses of High Carbon Steel
It is used to make tools such as drills, files and

chisel
 it is used to manufacture those part of machinery
that need a hard, tough and durable material
capable of withstanding shocks and vibrations

MATERIALS I
It is used to make tools such as drills, files and

chisel
 it is used to manufacture those part of machinery
that need a hard, tough and durable material
capable of withstanding shocks and vibrations

MATERIALS I

MATERIALS I
REINFORCING STEEL
 Plain cement concrete being stronger in compression but
weaker in tension
 Mild steel or high tension steel is embedded as
reinforcement in concrete to make it stronger in tension
 Though flat and square bar can be used, yet round bars are
extensively used as reinforcement to concrete

MATERIALS I
FABRICATION OF METALS
Metal fabrication is the process of building

machines and structures from raw metal materials.
 The process includes cutting, burning, welding,
machining, forming, and assembly to create the
final product.
Metal fabrication projects include everything from
hand railings to heavy equipment and machinery.

FABRICATION OF METALS

FABRICATION OF METALS cont…



Fabrication is the act of taking raw stock material and turning it

into a part for use in an assembly process. There are many
different types of fabrication processes. The most common are
Cutting
Folding
Machining
Punching
Shearing
Stamping
Welding

Cutting.
There are many ways to cut nowadays. The old
standby is the saw. Others now include plasma
torches, water jets, and lasers.
Folding
Some parts need to be bent. The most common method
is a press brake. It has a set of dies that pinches the
metal to form a fold. This operation can only be
performed in very specific cases due to the range of
movement of the part during the bending process and
the possible shape of the dies.
 Machining
This is the process of removing metal from a piece of material. It
might be done on a lathe, where the material rotates against a
cutting tool, or in some other cutting machine where a rotating tool
is moved in a variety of ways against a stationary piece.
 Punching
Punching is the act of a punch and a die forming a scissor effect on a
piece of metal to make a hole in it. Obviously, the punch and die
must be the same shape and size of the desired hole. In some cases,
the main piece of material is kept, as in when holes are added for
fasteners.


TESTING OF METALS
This section will cover:
Hardness of materials along with different
methods of hardness measurements normally used.
 Impact strength measurement
Tensile strength measurement

HARDNESS
 Commonly used property which gives indication

of the strength and resistance to scratch and wear
of a material/specimen.
 Resistance to permanent indentation.
 Hardness is not a fundamental property
because indentation depends on shape of
indenter and load applied.

HARDNESS cont…

HARDNESS cont…
Two test are mainly used to test hardness
of metals
1.Brinell Test
J. A. Brinell 1900
 Involves pressing a steel or carbide ball
of 10mm against a surface with various
loads.
 500, 1500, or 3000 kg
 Measures diameter of indentation.
 Harder surfaces have small indentation
while softer surfaces have larger
indentation.

HARDNESS cont…

2. Rockwell Test
 S. P. Rockwell 1922
 Test measures depth rather than diameter of indentation
 Diamond indenter presses against surface with minor
load and then major load.
 The difference in depths of penetration is a measure of
the hardness of material.
Limitation:
Can not be used to test
the hardness of brittle
materials.
Rockwell Test cont…

Rockwell Test Description
• Specially designed machine that applies load through a system
of weights and levers
– Hardness number is an arbitrary value that is inversely related to
the depth of indentation
– Scale used is a function of load applied and the indenter
• Rockwell B- 1/16in ball with a 100 kg load
• Rockwell C- Ball is used with the 150 kg load
– Operation
• Minor load is applied (10 kg) to set the indenter in material
• Dial is set and the major load applied (60 to 150 kg)
• Hardness reading is measured
• Rockwell hardness includes the value and the scale letter




Example
Convert the Rockwell hardness number HRc
60 to BHN

3. Vickers Test
Developed in 1922.
Comparable to Brinell Test except
using a pyramid shaped diamond to
make indentation.
 Lighter loads than Brinell Test –
From 1 to 120 kg

Impact strength Measurement
 Materials such as ceramics have low resistance
to breakage when a load is applied by impact
 The impact strength is defined as the energy

required to fracture a material under an impact
force.

Impact strength Measurement cont…
Impact Toughness
The energy dissipated in breaking the specimen
may be obtained from the amount of swing in the
pendulum.
High Impact Resistance
– High Strength
– High Ductility
– High Toughness
Impact Fracture Testing

In an impact test;
 a notched specimen is fractured by an impact
blow, and the energy absorbed during the fracture is
measured.
There are two types of tests –
 Charpy impact test
 Izod impact test.

The Charpy Test
The ability of a material to withstand an impact blow is

referred to as notch toughness.
The energy absorbed is the difference in height between
initial and final position of the hammer.
The material fractures at the notch and the structure of
the cracked surface will help indicate whether it was a
brittle or ductile

The Charpy Test cont…

The Izod Test
 Generally used for polymers.

 Izod test is different from the Charpy test in
terms of the configuration of the notched test
specimen

TENSILE STRENGTH TESTING
Introduction
In design, mechanical properties such as elastic

modulus and yield strength are important in order to
resist permanent deformation under applied stresses.
Thus, the focus is on the elastic properties.

TENSILE STRENGTH TESTING
Introduction cont…
 The yield behavior of a material is determined

from the stress-strain relationship under an
applied state of stress (tensile, compressive or
shear)

Tensile Test- Basic Principles
 An axial force applied to a specimen of original length
(lo) elongates it, resulting in a reduction in the cross-
sectional area from Ao to A until fracture occurs.
 The load and change in length between two fixed

points (gauge length) is recorded and used to determine
the stress-strain relationship.
 A similar procedure can be adopted with a sheet

specimen.

Tensile Test- Basic Principles cont…

Step 1: Original shape and size of the specimen with no

load
 Step 2: Specimen undergoing uniform elongation.
Step 3: Point of maximum load and ultimate tensile
strength.
Step 4: The onset of necking (plastic instability).
Step 5: Specimen fractures.
 Step 6: Final length.


Tensile Strength, TS

Tensile Strength, TS cont…
 After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation
in metals increases to a maximum point (M) and then decreases to
the eventual fracture point (F).
 All deformation up to the maximum stress is uniform throughout

the tensile sample.
 However, at max stress, a small constriction or neck begins to form.
 Subsequent deformation will be confined to this neck area.
 Fracture strength corresponds to the stress at fracture

Tensile Strength, TS cont…
Terminology
1. Engineering Stress and Strain
These quantities are defined relative to the original area
and length of the specimen.
 The engineering stress (∂e) at any point is defined as the

ratio of the instantaneous load or force (F) and the
original area (Ao).
The engineering strain (e) is defined as the ratio of the

change in length (L-Lo) and the original length (Lo).

Terminology cont…
Engineering Stress Strain Curve:
The engineering stress-

strain curve (∂e - e) is
obtained from the load-
elongation curve.
 The yield point, called the

yield strength (Y), signifies
the start of the plastic
region.

Terminology cont…
 It is very difficult to find the actual yield strength

experimentally. Instead, we use a 0.2% offset yield strength.
 0.2% offset yield strength is the point on the curve which is

offset by a strain of 0.2% (0.002) [the intersection of the
curve with a line parallel to the linear elastic line and is
offset by a strain of 0.002]
 The stress at maximum (Fmax/Ao) is referred to as the

Ultimate Tensile Strength (TS) and signifies:
– the end of uniform elongation.
– the start of localized necking i.e. plastic instability.

Terminology cont…
Ductility, %EL
 Ductility is a measure of the plastic deformation
that has been sustained at fracture:
A material that suffers very little plastic deformation is

brittle

Terminology cont…
True Stress and Strain:
The true stress (∂) uses the instantaneous or actual area
of the specimen at any given point, as opposed to the
original area used in the engineering values.
The true strain (ε) is defined as the instantaneous

elongation per unit length of the specimen.

Terminology cont…
 The relationship between the true and

engineering values is given by:
For a given value of the load and elongation, the true

stress is higher than the Engineering Stress, while the
true strain is smaller than the Eng. Strain.

Heat Treatment of Metals
 Heat treatment is a method used to alter the physical, and
sometimes chemical properties of a material.
 It involves the use of heating normally to extreme

temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material
 It applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are

done for the specific purpose of altering properties
intentionally
 Generally, heat treatment uses phase transformation during

heating and cooling to change a microstructure in a solid state.

Heat Treatment of Metals cont…
Types of Heat-Treatment (Steel)
 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Case hardening
 Tempering
 Precipitation strengthening
 Quenching

Types of Heat-Treatment (Steel) cont…
Annealing
A heat treatment process in which a metal is
exposed to an elevated temperature for an
extended time period and then slowly cooled.
Purpose:
 Relieve stresses of cold working
 Increase softness, ductility and
toughness
 Produce specific microstructure

Annealing cont…
Three Stages of Annealing
1. Heating to a desired temperature
2. Holding or soaking at that temperature
3. Cooling usually to room temperature
Note: Time in above procedures is important
- If rate of temp change is tool high, temp gradients will

induce internal stress in part and hence cracking

Normalizing
 Is annealing heat treatment process used to refine the grains
(decrease the average grain size )
 Produce a more uniform & desirable size distribution , fine
grained particles
 It is applicable to ferrous metal only
 It differ from annealing in that the metal is heated to a higher
temperature and then removed from the furnace for air cooling
 The purpose is to remove the internal stresses induced by
heating, welding or casting

Case Hardening
Is the process of hardening the surface of metal,

often a low carbon steel , by infusing elements
into the materials surface forming a thin layer of
harder alloy

Tempering
Is done to toughen the metal by transforming

brittle materials to ductile properties

Precipitation hardening
It is also called age hardening, is a technique used to
increase the yield strength of materials, including
most structural alloy of aluminum, and magnesium
 It relies on changes in solid solubility with
temperature to produce fine particles of an
impurities phase, impede the movement of
dislocations or defects in crystal lattice

Quenching
To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or
cast iron) must be heated into the austenitic crystal
phase and quickly cooled

Metal Corrosion
 the destruction of a material by chemical or
electrochemical reaction to its environment
 typically a transfer of electrons from one metal to
another through an Oxidation-Reduction Reaction.

Metal Corrosion cont.…
 Anodic metal gives up electrons (oxidation)
Al  Al 3  3e 
 Cathodic metal accepts electrons (reduction)
Cu 2   2e   Cu

Metal Corrosion cont..
Four ingredients must be present for the electrochemical process of
corrosion to occur, i.e., the corrosion cell. All four of these
elements must be present:
•Anode: The site of metal where oxidation (corrosion) occurs
•Cathode: The site of metal where corrosion does not form
•Metallic pathway: Provides the flow of electrons from anode to

cathode
•Electrolyte: A liquid that contains charged particles and allows

ions to flow from cathode to anode

Metal Corrosion cont..
Electrochemical cell
 Consist of iron and zinc
electrode
 Immersed in solution of
its ion
 The iron electrode
deposits, the zinc
electrode corrodes

Corrosion prevention
Corrosion is prevented by removing one of these

components from the corrosion cell.
As long as one of these components is missing, the
electrical circuit cannot be completed, and corrosion
cannot occur.

Corrosion prevention
Corrosion is prevented by removing one of these

components from the corrosion cell.
As long as one of these components is missing, the
electrical circuit cannot be completed, and corrosion
cannot occur.

Individual Assignment
1. With necessary sketches, describe eight (8) forms of
corrosion in metals
2. Discuss in details the corrosion mechanism of metal
3. Describe the types of corrosion
Note:
 It is an individual assignment. Coped work not
entertained
 Submission date: Friday 13th January, 2023 at 4.00 pm

Lecture 3 Metals

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LECTURE 3 : METALS

CE 8202: CONSTRUCTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS I 1

These compounds are known as ores. Ores are treated

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Depending upon carbon content steel is classified as

High carbon steel with carbon percentage over 1% is

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It is used to make tools such as drills, files and

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It is used to make tools such as drills, files and

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Metal fabrication is the process of building

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Fabrication is the act of taking raw stock material and turning it

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 Commonly used property which gives indication

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 The impact strength is defined as the energy

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Impact Fracture Testing

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The ability of a material to withstand an impact blow is

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 Generally used for polymers.

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In design, mechanical properties such as elastic

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 The yield behavior of a material is determined

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