COA CH 1

Chapter-1.
Digital logic and digital systems

1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 What is computer architecture?
 Computer architecture is deals with the structure and behavior of the various
functional modules of the computer and how they provide processing needs to the user.
 Examples of architectural attributes include;
 The instruction set,
 the number of bits used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters),
 I/O mechanisms, and
 Techniques for addressing memory. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC

1
 what is computer Organization?
 Computer organization is deals with the way the hardware components are
connected together to form a computer system.

 Those hardware attributes that are transparent to the programmer.
 Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the
programmer, such as;

O Control signals,
O Interfaces between the computer and peripherals,

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC
O The memory technology used. 2
 Digital computer is a digital system that performs various computational tasks.
 The word “Digital” implies that the information in the computer is represented by the
variables.
 The digital computer use the binary number system, which has two digits; 0 and 1.
 Because of the physical restriction of components.
 Inside the computer, there are integrated circuits with thousands of transistors.
 These transistors are made to operate on two-state.
 By this design, all the input and output voltages are either HIGH or LOW.
 Low voltage represents binary 0 and high voltage represents binary 1.by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC
Prepared
3
 A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware
and Software.
 The hardware of the computer consists of all the electronic component
and device.
 The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that
the computer manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.

 A sequence of instructions for the computer is called a Program.

4
Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of Digital Computer.

5
 A computer is a complex system; contemporary computers contain millions of elementary electronic
components.
 How, then, can one clearly describe them?
 The key is to recognize the hierarchical nature of most complex systems.
 The computer designer is concerned with structure and function characteristics of computer system.
 Computer Structure
 The way in which the components are interrelated
 The computer interacts in some fashion with its external environment.
 In general, all of its linkages to the external environment can be classified as peripheral devices or
communication lines
6
 There are four main structural components:
 Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and
performs its data processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.

 Main memory: Stores data.
 I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
 System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication
among CPU, main memory, and I/O.

 A common example of system interconnection is by means of a system bus
7
 CPU’s major structural components are as follows:
 Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU.
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data
processing and Arithmetic functions

 Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU
 CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

8
 Computer Function
 The operation of each individual component as part of the structure
Computers can perform four basic functions:

 Data processing
 Data storage
 Data movement
 Control

9
History of Computers and its Architecture
1) First Generation computer Vacuum Tube(1940-1956)
 The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass
device, which was called vacuum tubes.

 First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control
purpose.
 These computers were very heavy and really large in size.
 The main 1G computers are:
 ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly.
 EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von Neumann.
 UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly. 10
2) Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)
 Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum tubes.
 Another feature was the core storage.
 Transistors were invented in Bell Labs.
 The use of transistors made it possible to perform powerfully and with due speed.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input, and output units also
came into the force within the second generation.
 Programming language was shifted from high level to programming language and made
programming comparatively a simple task for programmers.
 Languages used for programming during this era were FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and
COBOL (1959). Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 11
2) Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits. (1964-1971)
 During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to integrated
circuits, also referred to as IC.

 Here a variety of transistors were placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors.
 A single IC, has many transistors, registers, and capacitors built on one thin slice of silicon.
 The value size was reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency were increased during
this generation.
 Programming was now wiped out Higher level languages like BASIC (Beginners All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code).

 Minicomputers find their shape during this era. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 12
2) Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-processors (1971-Present)
 In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large scale of integration circuits (LSI) built on
one chip called microprocessors.

 The most advantage of this technology is that one microprocessor can contain all the circuits
required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control functions on one chip.

 The computers using microchips were called microcomputers.
 This generation provided the even smaller size of computers, with larger capacities.
 That’s not enough, then Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits.
 Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and
virtual memory made it a more user-friendly and customary device. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 13
2) Fifth Generation Computers
 The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI.
 It allows computers to behave like humans.
 The speed is highest, size is that the smallest and area of use has remarkably increased within
the fifth generation computers.

 In order to summarize the features of varied generations of computers, it is often said that a big
improvement has been seen as far because the speed and accuracy of functioning care, but if we
mention the dimensions, it’s being small over the years.
 The value is additionally diminishing and reliability is in fact increasing
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 14

1.2. Fundamental building blocks (logic gates, flip-flops, counters, registers, PLA)
 Binary information in digital computers represented by physical quantities called signal.
 The fundamental building block of all digital logic circuits is the gate.
 Logical functions are implemented by the interconnection of gates.
 A gate is an electronic circuit that produces an output signal that is a simple Boolean
operation on its input signals.

 The basic gates used in digital logic are AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR.
 Each gate is defined in three ways: graphic symbol, algebraic notation, and truth
table.
 Note that the inversion (NOT) operation is indicated by a circle.

Logic Gates

Logic Gates
 It is important to identify functionally complete sets of gates.
 This means that any Boolean function can be implemented using only the gates
in the set.
 The following are functionally complete sets:
 AND, OR,NOT
 AND,NOT
 OR,NOT
 NAND
 NOR
 It should be clear that AND, OR, and NOT gates constitute a functionally
complete set, because they represent the three operations of Boolean algebra.
Logic Gates
 For the AND and NOT gates to form a functionally complete set, there must
be a way to synthesize the OR operation from the AND and NOT operations.
 This can be done by applying DeMorgan’s theorem:
 The AND, OR, and NOT functions can be implemented solely with NAND
gates.

Logic Gates
 Similarly, the OR and NOT operations are functionally complete because they
can be used to synthesize the AND operation.

 The AND, OR, and NOT functions can be implemented solely with NOR gate.
 For this reason, digital circuits can be, and frequently are, implemented solely
with NAND gates or solely with NOR gates.

Flip Flops
 A flip-flop is a simplest sequential digital electronic circuit having two stable
states that can be used to store one bit of binary data.

 Flip-flops are the fundamental building blocks of all memory devices.
 There are a variety of flip flops, all of which share two properties:
i. The flip-flop is a bi-stable device. It exists in one of two states and, in the
absence of input, remains in that state.

 Thus, the flip-flop can function as a 1-bit memory.
ii. The flip-flop has two outputs, which are always the complements of each other.
Flip Flops
 Types of Flip flop
i. S-R flip flop
ii. D flip flop
iii. J-K flip flop
iv. T flip flop
 THE S–R Flip Flop

 The circuit has two inputs, S (Set) and R (Reset), and two outputs, Q and
consists of two NOR gates connected in a feedback arrangement as shown
below.
Flip Flops
 THE S–R Flip Flop
First, let us show that the circuit is bi-stable. Assume that both S and R are 0 and that Q is
0.
The inputs to the lower NOR gate are Q = 0 and S = 0.
Thus, the output = 1. means that the inputs to the upper NOR gate are = 1and R = 0, which
has the output Q = 0.
Thus, the state of the circuit is internally consistent and remains stable as long as S = R = 0.
When R goes to 1, it forces Q = 0, = 1 regardless of the previous state of Q and

Flip Flops
 Clocked S–R Flip-Flop
The output of the S–R latch changes, after a brief time delay, in response to a
change in the input.
This is referred to as asynchronous operation.
More typically, events in the digital computer are synchronized to a clock pulse,
so that changes occur only when a clock pulse occurs.
This device is referred to as a clocked S–R flip-flop.
The R and S inputs are passed to the NOR gates only during the clock pulse.
Flip Flops
 D-Flip-Flop
One problem with S–R flip-flop is that the condition R = 1, S = 1 must be avoided.
One way to do this is to allow just a single input.
By using an inverter, the non-clock inputs to the two AND gates are guaranteed to be the
opposite of each other.
The D flip-flop is sometimes referred to as the data flip-flop because it is, in effect,
storage for one bit of data.
The output of the D flip-flop is always equal to the most recent value applied to the input.
It is also referred to as the delay flip-flop, because it delays a 0 or 1 applied to its input for
a single clock pulse.
Flip Flops
 J-K Flip-Flop
Like the S–R flip-flop, it has two inputs. However, in this case all possible
combinations of input values are valid.
Note that the first three combinations are the same as for the S–R flip-flop.
With no input asserted, the output is stable.
If only the J input is asserted, the result is a set function, causing the output to be 1;
 if only the K input is asserted, the result is a reset function, causing the output to
be 0.
Flip Flops
 J-K Flip-Flop
When J=K=0
When both J and K are 0, the clock pulse has no effect on the output and the output of the flip-
flop is the same as its previous value.
This is because when both the J and K are 0, the output of their respective AND gate becomes 0.
When J=0, K=1
When J=0, the output of the AND gate corresponding to J becomes 0 (i.e.) S=0 and R=1.
Therefore Q’ becomes 0.
When J=1, K=0
In this case, the AND gate corresponding to K becomes 0(i.e.) S=1 and R=0.
Therefore Q becomes 0.
This condition will set the Flip-flop. This represents the SET state of Flip-flop.
When J=K=1, the function performed is referred to as the toggle function:
The output is reversed. Thus, if Q is 1 and1 is applied to J and K, then Q becomes 0.
Flip Flops
 T Flip-Flop
In T flip flop, "T" defines the term "Toggle"

T flip flop is similar to J-K flip flop. Just tie both J and K inputs together to get a T Flip flop.
Just like the D flip flop, it has only one external input along with a clock.
The next sate of the T flip flop is similar to the current state when the T input is set to 0.
If toggle input is set to 0 and the present state is also 0, the next state will be 0.
If toggle input is set to 0 and the present state is 1, the next state will be 1.
The next state of the flip flop is opposite to the current state when the toggle input is set to 1.
If toggle input is set to 1 and the present state is 0, the next state will be 1.
If toggle input is set to 1 and the present state is 1, the next state will be 0 .
Flip Flops
 Applications Of Flip-Flops
 Counters
 Registers
 Frequency Dividers

Counters
 Counters are used for counting the number of occurrences of events.
 It is used for generating timing signals to control the sequence of operation in the
digital computers.
 A computer that follows the binary number sequence is called binary counter.
 Counters can be designated as asynchronous or synchronous, depending on the way in
which they operate.

 Asynchronous counters are relatively slow because the output of one flip flop triggers a
change in the status of the next flip flop.

 Synchronous counter, all of the flip flops change state at the same time. This type is
much faster. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 29

Registers
 A register is a group of flip flop capable of storing one bit of information in each
flip flop.
 If “n” bit of register has a group of “n” flip flop and it has storing n bits of any
binary information.
 The two major uses of Register in digital systems are:
 The flip flop hold & store the binary information for processing.
 The Gate control when and how new information is transferred into the register.
 Two types of registers are commonly used: Parallel registers and shift registers.

Registers
 Parallel Registers:
 A parallel register consists of a set of 1-bit memories that can be read or written
simultaneously. It is used to store data.

 The 8 bit register of figure illustrates the operation of a parallel register using D
flip flops.

Registers
 Shift Registers:
 A Shift register accepts and / or transfers information serially.
 Consider, for example, the figure, which shows a 5-bit shift register constructed
from clocked D flip-flops.

 Data are input only to the left most flip-flop. With each clock pulse, data are
shifted to the right one position, and the rightmost bit is transferred out.

Frequency Dividers
 As the name implies, the frequency divider circuits are used to produce the digital signal
output exactly half the input frequency.

 The frequency divider circuits are generally used in design of asynchronous counters.
 The process of dividing or reducing the output frequency to half of its input signal
frequency is called “Frequency division”.

 This means if we process an input signal of frequency 160k Hz, then the frequency
divider circuit will provide the output of 80k Hz.

Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
 The PLA consists of a regular arrangement of NOT, AND, and OR gates on a
chip.
 Each chip input is passed through a NOT gate so that each input and its
complement are available to each AND gate.

 The output of each AND gate is available to each OR gate, and the output of each
OR gate is a chip output.

 By making the appropriate connections, arbitrary SOP expressions can be
implemented.
 The following figure shows a PLA with three inputs, eight gates, and two outputs.
 Programmable Logic Array (PLA)

 The following picture shows a programmed PLA that realizes two Boolean expressions.
 Most larger PLAs contain several hundred gates, 15 to 25 inputs, and 5 to 15 outputs.
Logic Expressions
 A logical expression consists of one or more logical operators and logical, numeric, or
relational operands.
 Three common Logic operators are AND, OR, and NOT.
 A Boolean operator can be completely described using a table that lists the inputs, all
possible values for these inputs, and the resulting values of the operation for all possible
combinations of these inputs. This table is called a truth table.
 We can examine logic expressions composed of Boolean variables and multiple logic
operators.
 Boolean Algebra is one way of writing a logic expression in equation form.

Logic Expressions
 How do we know which operator to apply first?
 The rules of precedence for Boolean operators give NOT top priority, followed by AND,
and then OR.

 E.g. Logic Expression: F = (A + B) (A + B’) (A’ + B)
A B A’ B’ A+B A’+B A+B’ (A+B)(A+B’) (A+B)(A+B’)(A’+B)
 Truth Table:
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
 Logic Diagram:
Logic Expressions
 A logic diagram can also be used to represent a logic expression.
 A logic diagram uses the pictorial description of logic gates in combination to represent a
logic expression.
 An example below shows a logic diagram with three inputs (A, B, and C) and one output
(Y).
 The following Boolean expression represents the same logic as the example logic circuit
diagram above.
Boolean Function Minimization
 The process of simplifying the algebraic expression of a Boolean function is called
minimization.
 Minimization is important since it reduces the cost and complexity of the associated
circuit.
 Both behave exactly the same way!

 Boolean expressions can also be simplified, but we need new identities, or laws, that
apply to Boolean algebra instead of regular algebra.

 EXAMPLE1
 Given the function F(x,y,z) = yz+ y+ xz, we simplify as follows:
EXAMPLE2

Sum of products
 Given the function F(x,y,z) = yz+ y+ xz, we simplify as follows:
 The Sum of Products (SOP) form of Boolean expressions and equations contains a list of
terms (called minterms) in which all variables are ANDed (products).

 These minterms are then ORed (summed) together.
 Expressions in this form are particularly well-suited for minimization using the most
common methods.
 Conventional Form
 Consider the following logical expression:

Sum of products
 We will refer to this as the conventional form of a Sum of Products (SOP) expression.
 Note that the structure of the expression shows four groups of products (minterms).
 These minterms are ORed together.
 The AND logic has first operation precedence, followed by the OR operator.
 A summation form of a logical expression can be obtained by referring to each minterm
in the expression by its numerical equivalent in the domain, rather than by the list of
variables.
 In this case we substitute a "1" for all positive variables and a "0" for all inverted (i.e.;
those with a bar over them). E.g.

Register transfer notation
 Provides a formal means of describing machine structure and function.
 It can be used to describe WHAT a machine does.
 Using RTN can describe
1) Static properties
2) Dynamic properties
 Static properties
 Specifying register – IR(31 . . 0) specifies a register named IR having
32 bits numbered 31 to 0
 “Naming” using the := naming operator.
 Eg: - OP(4 .. 0) := IR(31 .. 27) - it tells that the 5msbs of IR be called
OP, with bits 4 .. 0 Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 45
Register transfer notation
 Dynamic properties:
 Condition Expression- (op=12) -> R[ra] <- R[rb] + R[rc]
 It says when the OP field of IR =12, will store in the register specified
by the ra field, which has addition of rb and rc.

Physical Consideration
 Logic Gate Delay
 Delay (d) Propagation delay, or gate delay, is the essential
performance metric, and it is defined as the length of time starting from
when the input to a logic gate becomes stable and valid, to the time that
the output of that logic gate is stable and valid.
 Why is that important? Ultimately, it determines how fast your circuit
can go.
 Define  as the delay required for the output voltage to reach 50% of its
final value. In this example we will use 3V logic, so halfway point is
1.5V.

 Logic Gate Delay
 Computer architects would like each system clock cycle to have
between 20 and 50 gate delays … use 35 for calculations
 Implication: if clock frequency = 500 MHz clock period = (510 s ) 8 1 1
 Period = 2  10 s = 2 ns (nanoseconds)
9
 Gate delay must be tD = (1/35)  Period = (2 ns)/35 = 57 ps (picoseconds)

 How fast is this? Speed of light: c = 3  108 m/s
 Distance traveled in 57 ps is: C X tD = (3x108m/s)(57x10-12s) = 17 x 10-4 m = 1.7cm
 What determines gate delay?
 The delay is mostly simply the charging of the capacitors at internal
nodes. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 48
 Fan-In
 Fan-in is a term that defines the maximum number of digital inputs
that a single logic gate can accept. Most transistor-transistor logic
( TTL )gates have one or two inputs, although some have more than
two.
 A typical logic gate has a fan-in of 1 or 2.
 Physical logic gates with a large fan-in tend to be slower than those
with a small fan-in.
 This is because the complexity of the input
An AND circuitry
gate increases the
input capacitance of the device. with three inputs
has a fan-in of 3.

 Fan-Out
 Fan-out is a term that defines the maximum number of digital inputs
that the output of a single logic gate can feed.
 Most transistor-transistor logic ( TTL) gates can feed up to 10 other
digital gates or devices.
 Thus, a typical TTL gate has a fan-out of 10.
 In contrast, complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) gates
can support over 50 connected devices, giving them a fan-out rate of
greater than 50.

Logic Chips

Logic Chips Integration levels
 SSI (small scale integration)  LSI (large scale integration)
 Introduced in late 1960s  Introduced in early 1970s
 1-10 gates (previous examples)  100-10,000 gates
 MSI (medium scale integration)  VLSI (very large scale integration)
 Introduced in late 1960s  Introduced in late 1970s
 10-100 gates  More than 10,000 gates

COA CH 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

COA CH 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter-1.

Digital logic and digital systems

 The instruction set,

 I/O mechanisms, and

 Techniques for addressing memory. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC

connected together to form a computer system.

 Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the

programmer, such as;

O Interfaces between the computer and peripherals,

 Because of the physical restriction of components.

 These transistors are made to operate on two-state.

the computer manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of Digital Computer.

 The key is to recognize the hierarchical nature of most complex systems.

 The way in which the components are interrelated

 The computer interacts in some fashion with its external environment.

performs its data processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.

 System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication

among CPU, main memory, and I/O.

 Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU.

 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data

processing and Arithmetic functions

 CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for

communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

 The operation of each individual component as part of the structure

Computers can perform four basic functions:

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC

device, which was called vacuum tubes.

circuits, also referred to as IC.

Symbolic Instruction Code).

one chip called microprocessors.

required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control functions on one chip.

 Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and

 It allows computers to behave like humans.

the fifth generation computers.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 14

 Logical functions are implemented by the interconnection of gates.

operation on its input signals.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 15

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 16

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 18

can be used to synthesize the AND operation.

with NAND gates or solely with NOR gates.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 19

states that can be used to store one bit of binary data.

absence of input, remains in that state.

i. S-R flip flop

ii. D flip flop

iii. J-K flip flop

iv. T flip flop

 THE S–R Flip Flop

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 22

In T flip flop, "T" defines the term "Toggle"

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 28

 Counters can be designated as asynchronous or synchronous, depending on the way in

which they operate.

change in the status of the next flip flop.

much faster. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 29

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 30

simultaneously. It is used to store data.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 31

 A Shift register accepts and / or transfers information serially.