PERCEPTION AND

COGNITION; LECTURE 1
K.Anaha
• Visual information travels from the retina through the visual pathway, undergoing basic processing in the
primary visual cortex (V1).
• The Two Streams Hypothesis posits two distinct pathways in the brain for processing visual information: the
ventral stream (what pathway) and the dorsal stream (where pathway).
• The ventral stream leads to the temporal lobe and is responsible for object recognition.
• The dorsal stream leads to the parietal lobe and is responsible for the spatial location of objects.
• In the ventral stream, information progresses through V1, V2, V3 (form processing), V4 (colour processing),
and area IT (the final stage for object recognition).
• In the dorsal stream, information progresses through V1, V2, V3 (form processing), V5 or MT (motion
processing), and MST (computing optic flow).
• The model is simplified, with much parallel processing and other subsystem activation occurring.
• The exact relationships between brain structure, function, and networks in visual processing are still being
discovered.
 Primary Visual Cortex (V1):

Location:
• Located at the back of the brain in the occipital lobe.
Function:
• V1, also known as the striate cortex or Brodmann area 17, is the first cortical
area that receives visual information from the retina via the optic nerve. It's
responsible for the initial processing of visual stimuli.

Key Functions:
Receiving visual input from the eyes.
Basic processing of visual information, such as detecting edges, lines, and
orientation.
Organising and interpreting basic visual features into meaningful patterns.
 SECONDARY VISUAL CORTEX
(V2)
Location:
• Adjacent to and interconnected with V1, also located in the occipital lobe.
Function:
• V2 receives processed visual information from V1 and further processes it, building upon
the initial analysis performed by V1.
Key Functions:
• Elaborating on the processing of visual features initiated in V1.
• Integrating information from V1 with other sensory inputs to create more complex
representations of visual stimuli.
• Playing a role in motion perception, colour perception, and depth perception.
 VISUAL AREA V3
Location:
• Located near V2, also within the occipital lobe.
Function:
• Visual area V3 is another stage in the processing hierarchy of visual information, building
upon the analysis performed by V1 and V2.
Key Functions:
• Continuing the processing of visual features such as orientation, spatial frequency, and
colour.
• Contributing to the perception of the form and shape of objects in the visual field.
• Potentially involved in the integration of visual information from different parts of the visual
field.
TWO VISUAL STREAMS
 Ventral Stream (What Pathway)
Function:
• The ventral stream is primarily concerned with identifying objects and recognising them.
Route:
After initial processing in the primary visual cortex (V1) and secondary visual cortex (V2), visual
information is transmitted along the ventral stream to the temporal lobe.
Key Areas and Functions:
• Temporal Lobe: The ventral stream terminates in the temporal lobe, particularly in an area called
the inferotemporal cortex (IT).
• Object Recognition: The IT cortex is crucial for visual object recognition, allowing us to identify
and categorise objects based on their visual characteristics such as shape, size, and texture.
• Example: When you see a familiar face and recognise it as belonging to a specific person, this
process largely involves the ventral stream.
 Dorsal Stream (where Pathway)

Function:
• The dorsal stream is primarily involved in processing spatial information and guiding actions in
response to visual stimuli.
Route:
• After initial processing in V1 and V2, visual information is transmitted along the dorsal stream to the
parietal lobe.
Key Areas and Functions:
• Parietal Lobe: The dorsal stream terminates in the parietal lobe, particularly in areas such as the
posterior parietal cortex.
• Spatial Location and Action Guidance: The dorsal stream is responsible for determining the spatial
location of objects in the visual field and guiding actions such as reaching and grasping.
• Example: When you reach out to grab a cup of coffee without looking directly at it, your dorsal stream
is involved in processing the spatial information needed to execute the action accurately.
FUNCTIONAL SPECIALISATION
 FUNCTIONAL SPECIALISATION OF THE VISUAL
CORTEX, ACCORDING TO ZEKI THEORY:

• Different cortical areas are specialised for processing different visual attributes (colour,
form, and motion).
• This parallel processing allows for efficient analysis of complex visual stimuli.
• The results from these separate areas are then integrated to create a unified perception.
 ADVANTAGES OF
SPECIALISATION:

• Allows for independent processing of unpredictable combinations of features (e.g., a green

car).
• Different attributes require distinct processing methods (motion requires integration over
time, form requires spatial relationships).
 BRAIN AREAS AND FUNCTIONS:

• V1 and V2: Early processing contains cells

responsive to colour and form.
• V3 and V3A: Respond to form (especially shapes
in motion) but not colour.
• V4: Mostly colour-responsive cells, many also
respond to line orientation.
• V5 (MT): specialised for visual motion (in
humans, MT and MST).
 EVIDENCE SUPPORTING
SPECIALISATION:
• Brain Damage: Damage to specific areas can cause specific deficits (e.g., achromatopsia and
V4 damage).
• Brain imaging: activity in specific areas correlates with processing specific features.
• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Disrupting specific areas can temporarily impair
processing.
 Challenges to Specialisation:
• Some overlap exists in feature processing across areas.
• The brain is more interconnected and complex than originally proposed by Zeki.
• Binding problem: How are separate features integrated into a unified perception?

Possible Solutions to the Binding Problem:

• Early Integration: Information might begin to be integrated in early visual areas.
• Recurrent Processing: Feedback from higher areas might help bind information.
• Binding by synchrony: Synchronised firing of neurons might represent bound features.
 LIMITATIONS OF ZEKI'S THEORY

• Underestimates the complexity of the visual brain and its connections.

• Ignores the importance of brain networks and recurrent processing.
• The binding problem remains unsolved.
• Visual Agnosia: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=ze8VVtBgK7A
• Colour processing: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=QYfqF6qH3Ys
• Motion processing: https://learn.london.ac.uk/mod/page/view.php?id=163520
 The visual binding problem

• The visual binding problem refers to the challenge of explaining how our brains combine
separate visual features, processed in different areas, into a unified perception of the world.

• Imagine looking at a red apple. Your brain receives information about the object's colour
(red) from one area, its shape (round) from another, and its location (in the centre of your
vision) from yet another. The binding problem asks: how does the brain take these separate
pieces of information and create the experience of a single red apple in a specific location?
1) It's a fundamental question in vision science. Understanding how binding works is crucial for
explaining how we see the world as coherent and unified.

2) Different brain areas process different features. As mentioned above, colour, form, and
motion are processed in separate areas of the visual cortex.

3) The binding process needs to be fast and efficient. Our brains need to integrate features
quickly to make sense of the constantly changing visual world.

4) There's no single agreed-upon solution. Scientists have proposed various theories about how
binding might occur, such as early integration of features, recurrent processing (feedback
between brain areas), and synchronised neural firing.
While Zeki's theory of functional specialisation highlights the separate processing of features, it doesn't
fully explain how these features come together to create our perception.

exclamation Research into the binding problem is ongoing, and a complete understanding of this
complex process remains a challenge for neuroscientists.
 ACTIVITY 1; WRITE A 300 WORD
SUMMARY OF THE ARTICLE

Tsotsos, J. K., Rodríguez-Sánchez, A. J., Rothenstein, A. L., & Simine, E. (2007, September
20). Different Binding Strategies for the Different Stages of Visual Recognition. Springer
eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-75555-5_15
 A SUMMARY:

This article proposes a new model for visual recognition that solves the problem of binding features together.
• The model uses a fixed visual processing hierarchy but allows it to be tuned to specific tasks before each recognition attempt.
•Recognition is achieved through a combination of feed-forward and feedback passes through the hierarchy.
•The number of passes required depends on the complexity of the recognition task.
•Four different binding processes are introduced:
•Convergence binding is used for simple detection and categorization tasks.
•Full recurrence binding is used for localization tasks and requires a complete top-down pass.
•Partial recurrence binding is used for identification tasks and may lead to illusory conjunctions if interrupted.
•Iterative binding is used for complex detection tasks and involves multiple feed-forward and feedback cycles.

•The model predicts a specific time course for recognition tasks, with simpler tasks taking less time than complex tasks.
•The model also makes predictions about top-down attentional modulation and suppressive surroundings during recognition.
Overall, this model provides a new way to understand how attention, binding, and recognition work together in visual processing .
HELMHOLTZ'S THEORY OF UNCONSCIOUS INFERENCE
Helmholtz's theory of unconscious inference proposes that visual perception is not just a passive registration of
light on the retina, but rather an active process that relies on past experiences and knowledge of the world.
1) Unconscious Inferences: Our brains don't directly perceive the external world but rather make unconscious inferences about it based
on the sensory information we receive. These inferences are so automatic and rapid that we are unaware of them.
2) Past Experiences: Our past experiences with objects and the world shape how we interpret sensory data. For example, seeing a
rectangular image with a curved top might unconsciously trigger our knowledge of cups, leading us to perceive it as a cup, even though
the image itself is just shapes and colours.
3) Knowledge of the World: Our general knowledge about how the world works plays a role in perception. For instance, we perceive
objects as having constant size despite changes in retinal image size due to distance, because we know objects don't magically shrink as
they move farther away.
4) Explains Illusions: The theory can explain visual illusions where our brain makes incorrect inferences based on its assumptions. For
example, in the Muller-Lyer illusion, two lines of equal length appear different due to the arrowheads at the ends.

Analogy: Imagine looking at a blurry picture. You might not be able to make out the details clearly, but if you
know it's a picture of your friend, you can still infer who it is based on your past experiences of seeing your
friend and your general knowledge of faces.
 ACTIVITY 2: WRITE A 300 WORD ESSAY ON THE TOPIC OF HELMHOLTZ'S THEORY OF UNCONSCIOUS INFERENCE.

Introduction :
• Briefly introduce Hermann von Helmholtz and his role in the field of perception.
• State the central idea of his theory: perception is not passive registration but an active process involving unconscious inferences.
• Main Body:
• Explain the concept of unconscious inferences: the brain interprets sensory information based on past experiences and knowledge of the
world.
• Provide examples of how unconscious inferences influence perception:
• Size constancy - objects maintain perceived size despite retinal image size changes with distance.
• Shape from shading - interpreting light and shadow to perceive 3D shapes from 2D images.
• Illusions - misinterpretations due to faulty inferences (e.g., Muller-Lyer illusion).
• Briefly discuss the role of past experiences and knowledge of the world in shaping these inferences.
Conclusion:
• Summarize the significance of Helmholtz's theory: highlights the active role of the brain in perception and its reliance on past experiences.
• Briefly mention its influence on modern cognitive science research on perception.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
3.9 reading; Gestalt principles
What is the main idea of Gestalt psychology?

Gestalt psychology focuses on how our minds organise and interpret visual data. It
emphasises that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. Gestalt psychologists
developed a set of rules to explain how we group smaller objects to form larger ones
(perceptual organisation). These rules are called the Gestalt laws of perceptual
organisation.
What are the Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation?

•Law of similarity
•Law of prägnanz
•Law of proximity
•Law of continuity
•Law of closure
•Law of common region
 What is the law of similarity?

The law of similarity states that similar things tend to appear grouped together.
Grouping can occur with both auditory and visual stimuli. For example, in the image at
the top of the page, you probably see two separate groupings of coloured circles as
rows rather than just a collection of dots.
What is the law of proximity?

The law of proximity is one of the Gestalt principles. It states that things that are
close together seem more related than things that are spaced farther apart. You
can see this principle in action in the image at the top of the page. The circles on
the left appear to be part of one grouping, while those on the right appear to be
part of another, due to the law of proximity.
 What is the law of continuity?

The law of continuity is a Gestalt principle that states that points that are connected by
straight or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path. In other words,
elements in a line or curve seem more related to one another than those positioned randomly.
What is the law of Prägnanz?

The law of Prägnanz, also called the law of simplicity, states

that our brain will make ambiguous or complex objects appear
as simple as possible.
What is the law of closure?

The law of closure states that we perceive elements as

belonging to the same group if they seem to complete some
entity. Our brains often ignore contradictory information and fill
in gaps in information.
What is the law of common region?

The law of common region states that when elements are

located in the same closed region, we perceive them as
belonging to the same group.
How do Gestalt laws help us perceive the world around us?

Gestalt laws help us simplify and organise the complex visual information we
receive from the environment. They help us identify patterns, objects, and
relationships between objects in the world around us.
Are Gestalt laws always reliable?
Gestalt laws are not always reliable. There can be situations
where multiple Gestalt principles can apply to the same stimuli,
leading to misinterpretations. Additionally, Gestalt laws are
based on perception, which can be influenced by our past
experiences and expectations.
• Can you provide some real-world examples of the Gestalt laws?

•Law of similarity: We see patterns in lines or shapes that are similar, such as the stripes on a zebra or the
bricks in a wall.
•Law of proximity: We tend to group objects that are close together, such as the stars in a constellation or
the houses on a street.
•Law of continuity: We see smooth lines or curves even if they are broken or incomplete, such as the curved
lines of a spiral staircase.
•Law of closure: We perceive a complete image even if parts of it are missing, such as a traffic sign with a
missing piece.
•Law of Prägnanz: We see simple shapes even if they are made up of more complex elements, such as the
geometric shapes in a logo.
•Law of common region: We perceive objects that are located within the same boundary as belonging
together, such as the elements on a computer screen.
How does Gestalt psychology relate to other schools of thought in psychology?

Gestalt psychology challenged the prevailing structuralist view

of perception, which emphasized breaking down perception into
its smallest parts. Gestalt psychology instead focused
ACTIVITY: 3: READ THE CHAPTER: OVERVIEW OF THEORY OF PERCEPTION
(PARKIN: PP.42–46) AND ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS.
1. Briefly explain the concept of a primal sketch according to Marr's theory of visual perception.
2. What is the difference between a viewer-centred representation and an object-centred representation of an object?
3. Describe the concept of perceptual constancy and how it helps us achieve a stable visual world.
4. Explain how chromatic adaptation contributes to colour constancy.
5. Describe the Ponzo Illusion and how it challenges the idea of size constancy being influenced by depth cues.
6. What is the Ames Room illusion, and how does it demonstrate the limitations of depth cues in size perception?
7. Briefly explain the Müller-Lyer illusion and how it highlights the potential limitations of high-level inferences in visual
perception.
8. How does shape constancy help us perceive objects in their typical form despite variations in viewing angles?
9. Briefly summarise James Gibson's concept of direct perception and the role of the optic array in this theory.
10. Explain the concept of "affordances" within the framework of Gibson's theory of direct perception.
Answer key in the word document: Activity 3; Answer key