Principles of Colour television

Recall: Composition Video Signal

The Video Signal containing the horizontal and vertical
sync and blanking pulses is called as composite video
signal.
Pixels or Picture element
Interlaced scanning
• In television pictures an effective rate of 50
vertical scans per second is utilized to reduce the
flicker. This is accomplished by increasing the
downward rate of travel of scanning of electron
beam, so that every alternate line gets scanned
instead of successive line.
• Then when the beam reaches the bottom of the
picture frame it quickly returns to the top to scan
those lines that were missed in the previous
scanning.
 Interlaced scanning
Definition
Interlaced scanning is the process in which the first
312.5 lines are scanned called odd field and then 312.5
even numbered lines are scanned called even field so
that frame containing 625 lines is scanned twice.
 Optics of Colour Television

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NATURE OF VISIBLE LIGHT

• white light is a very small part of the large spectrum of

electromagnetic waves which extend from very low to beyond 1025
Hz. The visible spectrum extends over only an octave that centers
around a frequency of the order of 5 × 1014 Hz. When radiation from
the entire visible spectrum directly reaches the eye we see white
light. If, however, part of the range is filtered out, and only the
remainder of the visible spectrum reaches the eye, we see a colour

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 Region of sunlight in the electromagnetic spectrum.

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Visible Light

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 • If the visible portion of the light spectrum is divided into
thirds, the predominant colors are red, green and blue.
• These three colors are considered the primary colors of the
visible light spectrum.
• Primary colors can be arranged in a circle, commonly
refered to as a color wheel.
• Red, green and blue (RGB) form a triangle on the color
wheel.
• In between the primary colors are the secondary colors,
cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY), which form another
triangle, figure 2.

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 GREEN
60o
120o YELLOW

CYAN 0o
180o RED

BLUE 300o
240o
MAGENTA

Figure 2. The color wheel.

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Concept of color
• What is color?
Color is the light wavelengths that the human eye receives and
processes from a reflected source. When light shines on an
object some colors bounce off the object and others are
absorbed by it. Our eyes only see the colors that are bounced
off or reflected.
• How do we see color?
The inner surfaces of our eyes contain photoreceptors—
specialized cells that are sensitive to light and relay messages to
our brain. There are two types of photoreceptors: cones (which
are sensitive to color) and rods (which are more sensitive to
intensity). We are able to “see” an object when light from the
object enters our eyes and strikes these photoreceptors. Light
with a wavelength of about 400 nm is seen as violet, and light
with a wavelength of about 700 nm is seen as red.
COLOUR PERCEPTION
• All colours are perceived
by human eye by the
stimulation of the three
groups of the cones at
different levels

• The sensitivity of human

eye is maximum for green
light (550nm)
 Types of cones

• React only to some

wavelengths, with different
sensitivity (light fraction Three kinds of cones
absorbed)
• Brain fuses responses from
local neighborhood of several

Sensitivity
cones for perceived color
• Sensitivities vary per person,
and with age
• Color blindness: deficiency in
at least one type of cone Wavelength (nm)

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 Approximate relative response of the
eye to different colours
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 TRISTIMULUS VALUES AND CHROMATICITY OF SPECTRAL COLOURS

• the primary spectral colours and their intensities required to produce

different colours by mixing have been standardized. The red, green
and blue have been fixed at wavelengths of 700 nm, 546.1 nm and
435.8 nm, respectively. The component values (or fluxes) of the three
primary colours to produce various other colours have also been
standardized and are called tristimulus values of different spectral
colours.

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Chromaticity Diagram

• Chromaticity diagram is a convenient space coordinate representation

of all the spectral colours and their mixtures based on the tristimulus
values of the primary colours contained by them

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Chromaticity diagrams: Yet another way to represent colors by (3)
numbers
• The chromaticity diagram is in many
ways similar to a color tree
• A chromaticity diagram has a fixed
brightness or lightness for all colors less saturated colors
• Wavelength colors are on the horseshoe
rim but non-wavelength colors like saturated
magenta are on the flat part of the rim wavelength
• Inside are the less saturated colors,
colors
including white at the interior

saturated
non-wavelength
colors

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 uses of a chromaticity diagram
• To identify colors with three numbers
• To predict the results of additive mixing
• To understand complementary colors
• To find the dominant hue of a color

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 • As seen in the figure the chromaticity diagram is formed
by all the rainbow colours arranged along a horseshoe-
shaped triangular curve. The various saturated pure
spectral colours are represented along the perimeter of
the curve, the corners representing the three primary
colours—red, green and blue.

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COLOUR MIXING
Subtractive Mixing
Additive Mixing
• Light from 2 or more • The combination of two
colours obtained colours reflects only the
either from colours which are
independent sources common to both
or through filters can • Uses the reflective
property of the pigments
create a combined
• Used in painting and
sensation of a printing
different colour
• Used in TV systems
COLOUR mixing
• Additive mixing •Subtractive mixing
Complimentary colours
• The colours which are obtained by pair wise additive mixing of
primary colours are know as complimentary colours

 Red + Green = Yellow

 Red + Blue = Magenta

 Blue + Green = Cyan

TRISTIMULUS VALUES
• The values of the individual colour components to get a particular
colour is known as the tristimulus values

• The wavelengths of red (700nm), green(546.1nm) and blue(438.8nm)

are standardized to make different colours by additive mixing

• The relative strengths of these components for getting different

colours also have been standardized

• E.g. white= 30% red + 59% green + 11% blue

• i.e. 1 lumen white= 0.3 lumen red+0.59 lumen green + 0.11 lumen
blue
Luminance, Hue & Saturation

• Luminance (Brightness): Amount of light intensity perceived

by the eye regardless of the colour
• Hue (tint): This is the spectral colour of the light
- Different hue due to different wavelengths and perceived
by the cones of the retina
- Eg: red apple is red due to red hue
• Saturation: Spectral purity of the colour.
- Saturation indicates whether a colour is diluted (by
mixing with white) or not.
- Saturation 100% means no white component
• Hue and saturation put together is known as Chrominance
 Color information transmission in TV

• In the most basic form, color television could simply be

implemented by having cameras with three filters (red,
green and blue) and then transmitting the three color
signals over wires to a receiver with three electron guns
and three drive circuits.

• Unfortunately, this idealized view is not compatible with

the previously allocated 7 MHz bandwidth of a TV channel.
It is also not compatible with previously existing
• Color TV is structured to preserve all the original
monochrome information -- and just add on the color
information on top.

• To do this, one signal, called luminance (Y) has been chosen

to occupy the major portion (0-4 MHz) of the channel. Y
contains the brightness information and the detail. Y is the
monochrome TV signal.

• Consider the model of a scene being filmed with three

cameras. One camera has a red filter, one camera a green
filter and one camera a blue filter.
• Assume that the cameras all adjusted so that when pointed at
"white" they each give equal voltages. To create the Y signal,
the red, green and blue inputs to the Y signal must be
balanced to compensate for the color perception misbalance
of the eye. The governing equation is:

• For example, in order to produce "White" light to the human

observer there needs to be 11 % blue, 30 % red and 59% green
(=100%).
• This is the "monochrome" part of the TV signal. It officially
takes up the first 4 MHz of the 6 MHz bandwidth of the TV
signal. However, in practice, the signal is usually band-limited
to 3.2 MHz.

• Two signals are then created to carry the chrominance (C)

information.
Production of color difference signal

•Voltage Vy is low because Rc is chosen to be small to avoid crosstalk. Hence

it is amplified before it leaves camera subchassis.
•Also the amplified Y signal is inverted to obtain –Y signal
•Then two adder circuits to obtain (R-Y) and (B-Y)
Colour Transmission System
NTSC (National TV System Committee) North
America, Japan –
PAL (Phased Alternation Line) Europe (Including
Israel) –
SECAM (Systeme Electronique Color Avec Memoire)
France, Russia and more
How chrominance signals are transmitted on
one carrier in pal system
• The modulated picture sub-carrier containing the colour information
is to be accommodated in the standard TV channel bandwidth(7MHz).
• This channel width is already fully occupied by the luminance signal
which has bandwidth of 5MHz.
• This problem is solved by employing a method is known as frequency
interleaving.
• frequency interleaving is the process of accommodating colour
information signals between the vacant spaces of clusters.
• Each cluster consists of harmonics of line
frequencies (H, 2H,3H, 4H......NH) i.e.
1Hz=1x15625 = 15625Hz
2Hz=2x15625 = 15625Hz
3Hz=3x15625 = 15625Hz
4Hz=4x15625 = 15625Hz
..
..
..
320Hz=320x15625 = 5MHz
Frequency Interleaving
• The colour signal is interleaved in these gaps
• The carrier frequency is so chosen that its sideband
frequencies fall exactly mid-way between the harmonics of
the line frequency.
• This requires that the frequency of the subcarrier must be an
odd multiple of half the line frequency.
• i.e. (2n+1)* 15625/2
• In 625 line system, this freq. is selected as 4.43MHz
(2*283+1)*15625/2
• In 525 line system it is 3.58MHz
Frequency Interleaving
Block diagram of colour tv transmitter

2 C Signal
 Block diagram of colour tv transmitter
• Colour camera: The scene to be televised is separated
into R,G & B.
• Colour matrix: Separate luminance signal (Y) &
chrominance signals (R-Y & B-Y) using suitable matrix.
• LPF: Limits chrominance signals bandwidth 1.5MHz.
• Modulators: Chrominance signals are Amplitude
modulated by colour subcarrier signals of 6.8MHz.
• Colour subcarrier generator: Generates 4.43MHz.
• Adder: Adder 2 adds both chrominance modulated signals
it is C-signal and Adder 1 adds C-signal and Y-signal is the
composite colour video signal.
• Main transmitter: Using antenna radiates Colour video
signal and Audio signal into space.
Block diagram of colour tv receiver
 Block diagram of colour tv receiver
• RF Tuner: Selects only band TV signals.
• Video IF Amplifier: To boost received TV signals
• Video detector & Video Amplifier: To detects Video signal and
separate C-signal, Y-signal & sync signal Audio & Video Signal.
• Detector: Amplitude demodulation of Chrominance signals.
• Colour subcarrier generator: Generates 4.43MHz.
• Phase reverse switch: 90 degrees phase shift.
• Matrix: To generate (R-Y), (G-Y), and (B-Y) from chrominance
signals (R-Y & B-Y) .
• Matrix 1: (R-Y), (G-Y), and (B-Y) colour difference signals are
added with Y-signal in the matrix and generates R,G & B
signals fed to tri colour picture tube.
• Sync pulse: pulses are separated and fed to vertical &
horizontal deflection circuits to deflect to electron beam.
Processing of colour video signal (PAL- system)-PAL-Decoder

U+jV

U-jV

U+jV
Processing of colour video signal (PAL- system)-
PAL-Decoder
• The received signal from Rx Antenna fed to Video detector (Chroma
Signala). The output of Video detector connected Y-Amplifier & BPF of 3-5
MHz.
• The problem of cross interference (distortion) between U and V signals in
the video detector’s output is solved by using delay circuit of 64us before
U&V signals.
• At the added & subtraction we get
Assume U+jV Direct signal
U-jV Delay Line signal
The j operator with V-signal indicates that V is at 90 degree phase difference with U-signal.

Adding two expressions to get 2U signal at the added output i.e

U+jV+U-jV=2U
Subtraction of expressions to get 2jV signal at the added output i.e
U+jV-U-JV= 2jV.
• These U & V signals are added in the matrix to produce R-Y, G-Y & B-Y
signals.
• These three colour signals and Y-signal is added in the RGB matrix to
produce R, G & B colours.
PAL-Decoder
• Advantages :
• -The phase error causing error in reproduction of colour is
eliminated
• -Bandwidth of U & V is same .This simplifies filtering action
• -Studio mixing is easy as compared to SECAM
• -Use of delay lines before demodulators isolates U and V
signal s from each other reduces crosstalk type of interference
in colours better than NTSC-results in better picture quality
• Disadvantages:
• -Electronic circuit and Ident signals are necessary in PAL which
makes the design complex
• -Delay line technique reduces vertical resolution of chroma
signal
Processing of colour video signal (PAL- system)-PAL-Encoder
Processing of colour video signal (PAL- system) -
Encoder
• The R, G & B signal for the camera are combined in the Y-
matrix to form Y-signal.
• The U-V matrix combines the R&B signal with –Y signal to
obtain U & V signals.
• The colour subcarrier is modulated in the quadreture by
the U & V Signal.
• The colour subcarrier is fed to the U modulator over a 90
degree phase shift network while the V modulator gets
the subcarrier over a 0 to 180 phase shift switched in
every alternate line by electronic commutator.
• Two modulated chrominance signal U & ± jV signal are
combined in the adder stage and the F-signal is obtained.
Color Television Transmission
Matrix Y Color Transmitter
Y color Receiver
MODULATION OF COLOR
DIFFERENCE SIGNALS
The problem of transmitting (B-Y) and (R-Y) video signals
simultaneously with one carrier frequency is solved by creating
two carrier frequencies from the same color subcarrier without
any change in its numerical value.

Two separate modulators are used, one for the (B-Y) and the
other for the (R-Y) signal. However, the carrier frequency fed to
one madulator is given a relative phase shift of 90° with respect
to the other before applying it to the modulator.
Balance Modulator
After modulation the two outputs are combined to yield C, the
resultant subcarrier phasor. Since the amplitude of C, the
chrominance signal, corresponds to the magnitudes of color
difference signals, its instantaneous value represents color
saturation at that instant.

Maximum amplitude corresponds to greatest saturation and

zero amplitude to no saturation i.e., white. Similarly, the
instantaneous value of the C phasor angle (θ) which may vary
from 0° to 360° represents hue of the color at that moment.
COLOR PHASE ANGLE
Thus the chrominance signal contains full information about
saturation and hue of various colors. This being a crucial point
in color signal transmission, is illustrated by a few examples.
However, it would be necessary to first express (R-Y) and (B-Y)
in terms of the three camera output voltages.
First substitute Y = 0.59G + 0.3R + 0.11B in these
expressions.

Thus
(R-Y) = R – 0.59G – 0.3R – 0.11B
= 0.7R – 0.59G – 0.11B.

Similarly,
(B-Y) = B – 0.59G – 0.3R – 0.11B
= 0.89B – 0.59G – 0.3R.
Now suppose that only pure red color is being scanned by the color
camera.
This would result in an output from the red camera only, while the green
and blue outputs will be zero.
Therefore,
R-Y = 0.7R
B-Y = – 0.3R
The resultant location of the subcarrier phasor after modulation is illustrated in Fig. Note that
the resultant phasor is counter clockwise to the position of + (R-Y) phasor
For the color camera scanning a pure blue color scene.
R-Y = – 0.11B
And
B-Y = 0.89 B.
The resultant phasor for this color lags + (B-Y) vector
by a small angle. Similarly the location and magnitude
for any color can be found out. This is illustrated in
Fig. for the primary and complementary colors.
Modulation of Colour Signal

• Pure red –
• R = 1v
• B = G = 0v
• (R-Y) = ?
• (B-Y) = ?
Video signals
for colours
• Colour
voltage
amplitudes:
Video signals for colours
• Desaturated colours:
• Any colour is said to be desaturated when mixed with white
• In a colour camera output signal, Red colour is desaturated to a small amount,
then the Vg and Vb have lower values
• But as desaturation of red increases, Vg and Vb values are increased
• For 100% desaturation Vr = Vg =Vb
Video signals for colours
• Colour video Frequencies:
• When the scene is not dominated by one or few colours the information to be
transmitted occupies more frequency spectrum
• It is discovered that colour frequencies need 1.5 Mhz band in order to
transmit finest details of a scene
• The luminance signal frequency range is up to 5 Mhz
Luminance signal Y
• Luminance refers to the brightness of scene
• It is formed by adding the three camera outputs in the ratio, Y = 0.3 R
+ 0.59 G + 0.11 B
• These percentages correspond to the relative brightness of the three
primary colours
• Therefore a scene reproduced in black and white by the ‘Y ’ signal
looks the same as when it is televised in monochrome
Luminance signal Y
Generation of luminance signal Y
Compatibility
• It is necessary that a colour TV should produce black and white
picture and a black and white TV should be able to process colour
signal to extract the black white scene information
• This feature is known as compatibility of video signal
• Here we can not transmit Vr, Vg, Vb separately because of limitation
of 5.5 bandwidth
• To solve this problem colour difference signals are used, which can be
accommodated in 5.5 Mhz band
Colour difference signal
• Colour difference voltages are derived by subtracting the luminance
voltage from the colour voltages
• Only (R – Y) and (B – Y) are produced
• It is only necessary to transmit two of the three colour difference
signals since the third may be derived from the other two
• The circuit for getting colour difference signals is as follows
Colour difference signal
Colour difference signal
• Here by definition we have
• Y = 0.3R + 0.59G + 0.11B
• Therefore,
• (R – Y) = 0.7R – 0.59G – 0.11B
• (B – Y) = 0.89B – 0.59G – 0.3R.
• The colour difference signals equal zero when white or grey shades
are being transmitted
• On peak whites let R = G = B = 1 volt
• Then Y = 0.59G + 0.3R + 0.11B = 0.59 + 0.3 + 0.11 = 1 (volt)
• (R – Y) = 1 – 1 = 0, volt and (B – Y) = 1 – 1 = 0 volt
Colour difference signal
• On any grey shade let R = G = B = v volts (v < 1)
• Then Y = 0.59v + 0.3v + 0.11v = v
• (R – Y) = v – v = 0 volt and (B – Y) = v – v = 0 volt
• Thus it is seen that colour difference signals during the white or grey
content of a colour scene of during the monochrome transmission
completely disappear and this is an aid to compatibility in colour TV
systems
Colour difference signal
• Consider we have a desaturated magenta(Purple) colour to transmit
• Suppose R = 0.7, G = 0.2 and B = 0.6 volts
• The white content is represented by equal quantities of the three
primaries and the actual amount must be indicated by the smallest
voltage of the three, that is, by the magnitude of G
• Thus white is due to 0.2 R, 0.2 G and 0.2 B. The remaining, 0.5 R and
0.4 B together represent the magenta hue
Colour difference signal
• (i) The luminance signal Y = 0.3 R + 0.59 G + 0.11 B
• Substituting the values of R, G, and B we get Y = 0.3 (0.7) + 0.59 (0.2) +
0.11(0.6) = 0.394 (volts)
• (ii) The colour difference signals are:
• (R – Y) = 0.7 – 0.394 = + 0.306 (volts)
• (B – Y) = 0.6 – 0.394 = + 0.206 (volts)
• (iii) Reception at the colour receiver—At the receiver after
demodulation, the signals, Y, (B – Y) and (R – Y), become available
Colour difference signal
• Then by a process of matrixing the voltages B and R are obtained as:
• R = (R – Y) + Y = 0.306 + 0.394 = 0.7 V
• B = (B – Y) + Y = 0.206 + 0.394 = 0.6 V
• (G – Y) matrix—The missing signal (G – Y) that is not transmitted can
be recovered by using a suitable matrix based on the explanation
given below:
• Y = 0.3 R + 0.59G + 0.11B
• also (0.3 + 0.59 + 0.11)Y = 0.3R + 0.59G + 0.11B
Colour difference signal
• Rearranging the above expression we get:
• 0.59(G – Y) = – 0.3 (R – Y) – 0.11 (B – Y)

• Substituting the values of (R – Y) and (B – Y)

• (G – Y) = – (0.51 × 0.306) – 0.186(0.206) = – 0.15606 –
0.038216 = – 0.194
• G = (G – Y) + Y = – 0.194 + 0.394 = 0.2
Colour difference signal
• Unsuitability of (G – Y) Signal for Transmission:
• The proportion of G in Y is relatively large(59%) in most cases, the
amplitude of (G – Y) is small
• The smaller amplitude together with the need for gain in the matrix
would make S/N ratio problems more difficult then when (R – Y) and
(B – Y) are chosen for transmission
 Encoding of colour difference signals
• The problem of transmitting (B-Y) and (R-Y) video signals
simultaneously with one carrier frequency is solved by creating two
carrier frequencies from the same colour subcarrier without any
change in its numerical value
• Two separate modulators are used, one for the (B-Y) and the other for
the (R-Y) signal
• However, the carrier frequency fed to one modulator is given a
relative phase shift of 90° with respect to the other before applying it
to the modulator
Encoding of colour difference signals
Encoding of colour difference signals
Formation of chrominance signal
Magnitude of chroma signal can be found as below:

 ((B - Y) 2  (R - Y)2 )  ((-0.3) 2  (0.7) 2 )  0.76

And the phase of chroma signal with respect to (B-Y) can

found as below

(R  Y )
1 ( 0 .7 )
 tan  tan 1
 104
(B  Y ) (0.3)
Thus for pure red colour , the chroma signal falls in
second quadrant
Formation of chrominance signal
• For cyan(Blue +Green) R = 0v, G = 1v, B = 1v
• Putting values for cyan we have,
• (R – Y) = 0.7(0) – 0.59(1) – 0.11(1) = -0.7v
• (B – Y) = 0.89(1) – 0.59(1) – 0.3(0) = 0.3v
• Magnitude of chroma signal can be found as below:
 ((B - Y) 2  (R - Y)2 )  ((0.3) 2  (-0.7) 2 )  0.76

• And the phase of chroma signal with respect to (B-Y)

can found as1below
(R  Y ) 1 ( 0.7)
 tan  tan  284 
 180 
 104 

(B  Y ) (0.3)
Formation of chrominance signal
• From previous analysis we can say that as cyan is a complementary
colour of red it has the same magnitude but exactly opposite angle
• In a natural scene we have many combination of colours in a single
horizontal line of an image or video
• Therefore, for a natural scene the chroma signal has different
magnitude and phase angle for each horizontal line
• The chroma signal decides the hue and saturation of a colour picture