Literatures

ANATOMY: Stiffness
 Long, Nipper (1996)
• Stiffness of cantilever beam: Bending moment vs bending frequency (resonance)
• Fish use its muscle to increase body stiffness, thus tuning its natural frequency to the driving
frequency
• Hypothesis: , where is stiffness of body, is propulsive wavelength and is number of vertebrae
• Anguilliform has flexible body and carangiform has stiffer bodies (Breder 1926)
• Anguilliform has many more vertebrae than carangiform
• Largemouth bass increase body stiffness by using their muscles to generate negative work
Theoretical Study
 Euler-Bernoulli beam
 Assumptions: small deformations and strains, linear elasticity, and neglecting shear deformation
and rotary inertia
 Eulerian approach: the focus is on observing the behaviour of material particles at fixed points in
space as the beam deforms.
• Using Hooke's law for linear elasticity, the stress in the beam element is related to the strain by
𝜎 = 𝐸(∂𝑤/∂𝑥)
• Applying Newton's second law, the sum of the forces acting on the beam element in the
transverse direction is equal to the product of the stress and the area moment of inertia. This
leads to
𝐸𝐼(∂^2𝑢/∂𝑥^2) = 𝑞(𝑥)
 Euler-Lagrangian approach: the focus is on tracking the motion of individual material particles as
they move with the beam.

• Next, we solve the Lagrangian equation: d/dt (∂L/∂) + ∂L/∂ = Q, where L=KE-PE, is the generalised
coordinate and Q is generalised force.
 D'Alembert's paradox (wiki)
 D’Alembert, working on a 1749 Prize Problem of the Berlin Academy on flow drag, concluded: "It
seems to me that the theory (potential flow), developed in all possible rigor, gives, at least in
several cases, a strictly vanishing resistance, a singular paradox which I leave to future Geometers
[i.e. mathematicians - the two terms were used interchangeably at that time] to elucidate“.
 D'Alembert proved that – for incompressible and inviscid potential flow – the drag force is zero on
a body moving with constant velocity relative to the fluid. Zero drag is in direct contradiction to
the observation of substantial drag on bodies moving relative to fluids, such as air and water;
especially at high velocities corresponding with high Reynolds numbers
 Misc.
 The Biot-Savart law is used in aerodynamic theory to calculate the velocity induced by curved
vortex lines
 Kelvin's theorem: In a barotropic, ideal fluid with conservative body forces, the circulation around
a closed curve (which encloses the same fluid elements) moving with the fluid remains constant
with time.
 Kutta condition: fluid must leave the lifting body smoothly with finite velocity.
Numerical Study
Experimental Study
 Aliasing, Nyquist Frequency
 Aliasing error, also known as aliasing distortion or aliasing artifact, occurs when a continuous
analog signal is sampled at a rate that is too low to accurately represent the original signal. It is a
phenomenon that arises in digital signal processing, particularly during analog-to-digital
conversion.
 Aliasing occurs due to the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, which states that in order to avoid
aliasing, the sampling rate must be at least twice the maximum frequency component of the
signal being sampled. If the sampling rate is too low, frequencies higher than the Nyquist
frequency (half the sampling rate) can "fold back" into the frequency range below the Nyquist
frequency, resulting in incorrect representation of the signal.