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Chapter 2 - Section I Ii Iii
Chapter 2 - Section I Ii Iii
Chapter 2 - Section I Ii Iii
PART II:
OPERATIONS
SECTION I:
CHAPTER 2:
INTERMOD
AL
01 INTRODUCTION
02 LOADING UNITS
04 TRAINS
05 CONTAINER VESSELS
06 CONCLUSION
01 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a thorough list and description of different types of locomotives,
trucks, coastal and inland vessels, cranes, reach stackers and so on, as well as
intermodal loading units, wagons, containers, chassis, swap bodies, trailers and so on.
Photos and diagrams are used with discussion of dimensions and capacity. In terms of
equipment, issues discussed include high cube and pallet-wide containers, container
owning and leasing, issues of empty container management, swap bodies versus trailers,
different wagon designs and ownership models. This chapter focuses on the most
common equipment and does not go into technical detail.
02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT IS INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?
shipment
02 LOADING UNITS
one end (although different kinds exist, such as those with side doors,
vents, etc. – see Table 2.3 and Figure 2.2). They are the dominant type of
goods.
Generally, the goods will be loaded in boxes, cartons and cases and placed
on pallets, but goods can also be loose or in sacks, drums, bales and so on.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
source that may last several hours for an overland journey but
not the days that it may sit in a port or weeks at sea (Figure 2.3).
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
but are in the region of $4000 compared with $2000), and enough
requiring micromanagement.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
and not delivered on speculative routes where they may sit idle for
would be unsustainable.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION?
Each shipping container has a unique identification. The previously mentioned ISO
standard 6346 was established in 1995 to regulate the coding, identification and marking of
the container.
Example, MSKU 0803081 45G1: The first three digits are the owner, in this case Maersk, and U
is the product group code (U: freight containers, J: detachable freight container-related
equipment, Z: trailers and chassis). The six digits are the registration number for the
container, and the seventh is the check digit (an algorithm is used to calculate from the
other six digits that should produce the correct check digit).
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION?
The four-digit combination of numbers and letters, for example 45G1, refers to the
container type. ISO codes, both current (1995) and previous (1984), provide the length,
height and width of the containers. The first figure in the four-digit container number
records the length, the second figure records the height and width (a different figure for
different height/width combinations, e.g. 5 is high cube while E or N is high cube with
larger width).
The third figure denotes the type (e.g. G for general container, R for reefer) and the
fourth denotes the subset of that category (e.g. G0 is standard, G1 has vents). Therefore,
for example, 45G1 is a 40 ft long container, 9 ft 6 in high, 8 ft wide (i.e. high cube
and standard width), general-purpose type with vents (Tables 2.1 through 2.3).
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION?
PART II:
OPERATIONS
SECTION II:
CHAPTER 2:
INTERMOD
AL
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
EMPTY CONTAINER REPOSITIONING
once a container has been emptied, the empty box will be taken
It may then wait there for a period of time until a local exporter
enough export loads to fill all the containers that arrive with
imported goods.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
EMPTY CONTAINER REPOSITIONING
If the container must sit idle for more than 1–2 weeks then the loss
found.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
PROBLEM OF THE EMPTY CONTAINER
REPOSITIONING?
take place, the higher the cost. Initially, this cost is borne by the
container slot in the world fleet, to account for overland movements as well
flexibility for shipping lines that do not want to take the risk of purchasing
The problem with this system is that each container is owned (or at least
There have been some attempts in the industry to solve this problem
through the use of box pools (so-called grey boxes because containers
are normally clearly branded for each shipping line), but the problem has not
Swap bodies can be moved between road and rail vehicles, but are
They can be fully rigid or curtain sided for side loading. They often
As they do not have the same frame strength as containers, they cannot be
lifted from above by spreader cranes but must be lifted from special fittings
underneath.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SWAP BODIES?
Swap bodies are less strong than ISO containers, but they have some
advantages as they are easier for truck drivers to connect to them as they do
not have to be loaded and unloaded from ground level. Their less rigid
equipped with legs that can be lowered to support the trailer when
pivot on the joint. Semi-trailers with two trailer units are called B-
The term trailer can also refer solely to the wheeled unit on which
containers are unloaded from trains onto waiting chassis, and the
driver will arrive with only the tractor unit and hook up to a trailer
and transportation. It also has a better ratio between its own and
cargo weights.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF TRAILER (‘Van Trailer’)
carried.
The box trailer is the most common type of trailer, and it is also
A curtain sider is similar to a box trailer, except that the sides are
ease of a flatbed.
Double-deckers are trailers with a second floor to enable them to carry more
the main transport market for maritime containers is the trans-ocean trade.
The division is, however, not precise since the design of the latter transport
and the roll-on/roll-off (RoRo) ships transporting semi-trailers can also take
compete with air transport although very differently in terms of costs and
growth in international trade to and from the Far East (cf. Woxenius and
Bergqvist, 2011).
The business priority for the RoRo operators is mainly towards providing
economies of scale.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS
operations for the semi-trailer segment and the maritime leg for the
container segment. The results are quick RoRo transshipment and frequent
while that of LoLo is on low transport costs (Woxenius and Bergqvist, 2011).
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS
hub ports combined with feeder services to regional ports, while the lower
maintained service in a straight line with less focus on large gateway ports.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
The modal competition has led to a sharper geographic concentration in the container segment,
implying larger hinterland depth for containers; that is, they generally travel further inland from
The RoRo segment presents a wider range of possible time-schedule changes in order
Shippers would expect time precision in hours or even minutes for the semi- trailer segment,
while the container segment is less strict on time precision (maybe days instead of hours).
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION
The dwell time in ports for semi-trailers is often very short compared with
the container segment, where ports are often used to absorb the slack in the
The fact that semi-trailers are of higher value also contributes to the low
chains that split between modes, whereas the road haulers and the transport of
semi-trailers normally plan for the same vehicle throughout the transport chain.
The planning and operational barriers for using rail are accordingly higher for
semi-trailers.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION
The physical characteristics of the container and the semi-trailer evidently affect
the technology that surrounds them. At the same time, much of the transport
technology is multipurpose in the sense that it can manage both types of load
units.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION
is more complicated and costly for semi-trailers than for containers. The height
and weight of the semi-trailer require the use of four-axle pocket wagons.
Source: Woxenius, J. and Bergqvist, R., Journal of Transport Geography. 19(4), 680–688, 2011.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION
Source: Woxenius, J. and Bergqvist, R., Journal of Transport Geography. 19(4), 680–688, 2011.
LOGISTICS AND INTERMODAL TRANSPORT
PART II:
OPERATIONS
SECTION III:
CHAPTER 2:
INTERMOD
AL
03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
FORKLIFTS
used for handling all kinds of palletized goods, sacks, drums and so
containers.
03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
FORKLIFTS
However, one criticism is its instability. The forklift and load must be
movement of the load. A forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with
a raised load, where centrifugal and gravitational forces may cause the
over short distances very quickly and stack them in various rows,
Rubber-tyred gantry cranes (RTG) are equipment for the yard handling of
overhangs. Compared with the RTG, the RMGs have the advantages of
speed.
03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
RAIL-MOUNTED GANTRY CRANES (RMG)
large quantities, since the cranes required for this purpose must be able
STS cranes are large gantry cranes that are used in ports for loading and
unloading vessels at the quayside. They have a higher and longer reach
and faster handling time. A large container port will use a number of
stack as required. They are used in ports to move containers between the
An automated guided vehicle (AGV) follows markers or wires under the ground or
uses vision or lasers. They are most often used in industrial applications to move
AGVs are used in some ports to produce a fully automated container terminal. Due
to the high investment and high maintenance required, the systems are still seen as not
as competitive as the conventional systems such as straddle carriers, for most of the
section is to briefly introduce the main types and most commonly used
purpose-built for the traction of rail wagons. For the transport of freight,
transport where the engine might be integrated into the passenger wagon
that the locomotive can easily move from one freight assignment to
Electric,
Non-electric and
Hybrids.
and diesel.
04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES
the need to sit inside the locomotive driver’s compartment. Both of them
Locomotives that move goods such as raw materials (e.g. iron ore) on rail
lines where there is high axle load capacity can be equipped with engines
The first locomotives were steam powered, and they gave way to diesel
mid-way through the twentieth century. In the last few decades, electric
Electric locomotives are the most energy efficient and provide the most
cost-efficient operation. The electricity goes from the line via the
locomotive connector.
04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES
provide the power along the entire network. In countries with very large
networks involving long distances (e.g. North America), the cost is too
handling equipment.
diesel-electric.
04 TRAINS
SOME DRAWBACK OF LOCOMOTIVES
In recent decades, flat wagons for hauling containers have become the
dominant type of wagon, replacing the boxcar, where the cargo had to be
loaded and unloaded into the wagon manually. Yet, many specialized
WAGONS
bulk goods, such as coal or iron ore, which are the traditional traffic type
Open wagons of standard design (UIC Class E) often have side doors but
Flat wagons (flatcars in the United States) have no walls or low walls that
are no higher than 60 cm. The kind with uprights can be used for goods,
Vessels range from only a few hundred TEU to the current largest
vice versa.
05 CONTAINER VESSELS
DEEP-SEA CONTAINER VESSELS
from hub ports to smaller ports that do not have sufficient demand
As canals are sheltered from the sea, barges do not require the
conditions.
05 CONTAINER VESSELS
INLAND NAVIGATION VESSELS
carry wheeled cargo, such as automobiles, trucks, semi-trailer trucks, trailers and railroad cars
that are driven on and off the ship via a built-in ramp for efficient loading and discharging operations.
ship, where they can be transported in their entirety or where the semi-trailer may be left
unaccompanied. Even containers can be left at the port and placed on dollies or mobile loading
platforms (MAFIs) and wheeled into the vessel in that way, and then picked
This chapter has provided an overview of the main vehicle and equipment types
used in intermodal transport. However, due to the vast variety of equipment in use in
the industry, the specific types described here are only representative of some
of the more commonly seen varieties.
Students are encouraged to go online to view photographs and videos through
which to explore the wide variety of equipment in addition to that listed in this
chapter, and in particular to view how it is used in practice, such as in loading and
unloading procedures.
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