Plant Anatomy

and
Physiology

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• Tissues
• Organs: Roots, Stems, Leaves
• Physiology: Transport, Response
 Anatomy vs Physiology

What is plant anatomy? What is plant physiology?

• ANATOMY: study of • PHYSIOLOGY: study
the structure of of the function
organisms – and the
– (Morphology: Study of physics/chemistry of
form) these functions…
 Structure
correlates to
function!
Plant Cells
Recall: General Plant Cell Structure
⌘All plant cells:
⌘Are Eukaryotic – have nucleus & organelles
⌘Have chloroplasts for photosynthesis
⌘Not in all cells in the plant
⌘Have large central vacuoles
⌘Turgor pressure to support plant
⌘Stores water and other material
⌘Have cell walls of cellulose and lignin
⌘Organized into tissues and organs
 Plant Cell Walls
⌘Have cell walls made of cellulose and lignin
⌘For structure and support
⌘Cellulose – all plant cells,
⌘Complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide)
⌘Chains of glucose
⌘Hard to digest
⌘Lignin – in vascular tissue, more plentiful in
wood
⌘Complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide)
⌘Cross bonds – really strong
Types of Plant
Cells
 Parenchyma
⌘Basic structure of plant cell
⌘Thin-walled
⌘Minimal specialization
⌘Can undergo division when mature
⌘Must differentiate for function
 Collenchyma
⌘Elongated cells
⌘Have unevenly thickened cell walls
⌘Thin parts can expand, stretching plant
⌘Allows bending without breaking
⌘Can divide when mature
Collenchyma
Collenchyma vs parenchyma
 Sclerenchyma
⌘Essentially dead as mature “cells”
⌘Lose cytoplasm and organelles when mature
⌘Cell wall remains – lots of lignin
⌘Function in Support and transport
⌘Ex – wood. Rope
 Sclerenchyma
⌘Two types
⌘Sclereids – distributed
throughout plant
⌘Shorter, irregularly
shaped
⌘Ex - gritty texture in
pears, seed coats,
nutshells
⌘Fibers – cylindrical, with
thick walls
⌘Stacked end to end
⌘In rope, canvas, wood
 Types of Plant
Tissues

Tissues- groups of cells with similar structure & function

 Plant Tissue Types
⌘Plant organs (roots, stems leaves) are
made of the same types of tissue:
⌘Dermal – outer layer
⌘Vascular – conducting tissue/support
⌘Ground – bulk of inner layers
⌘Meristem – growing tissue
Dermal Tissue

Tissue on the outer surfaces

 Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
⌘Cuticle – Waxy coating (not cells)
⌘Stems and leaves
⌘prevents water loss
 Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
⌘Trichomes – hair like
structures that protect the
plant and limit evaporation
⌘Some have
 Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
⌘Root hairs – increased
surface area for absorption
 Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
⌘Stomata (pores)/guard cells
⌘ Stoma is singular
⌘Controls gas exchange by filling
vacuoles with water or pumping water
out
 Dermal Tissue
⌘Periderm – Bark (more later)
 Dermal Tissue
⌘Epidermis – Outer layer of
cells
⌘Transparent where
photosynthesis is done

Epidermis
 Vascular
Tissue

Transport/Support Pipes
 Vascular Tissue
⌘Function: transport water and nutrients and
support plant
⌘General structure – cylindrical, mostly
hallow cells that resemble pipes
⌘Two types (Xylem and Phloem)
 Xylem
⌘Function: Transport
water (and dissolved
minerals) upward in
plants, (1way)

⌘Made of hollow cells that

make a tube
⌘Mostly dead – Hollow Cells
of just cell walls
⌘ Can conduct water even
after cells die
 Xylem
⌘Xylem is made of:
⌘Vessel elements – short, wide,
tube-shaped cells stacked to
make a pipe
⌘Walls on the end are
perforated or lacking
completely to allow better
flow
⌘Only in angiosperms
⌘Tracheid – long cylindrical cells
- like little straws
⌘Have cell walls – less
efficient
Xylem
 Phloem
⌘Function: Transports “phood” (sugars) in
plants (up and down)
⌘Sclereids support plant too
⌘Alive (unlike xylem)
 Phloem
⌘Structure –
⌘Sieve tube member – has cytoplasm but no
nucleus or ribosomes when mature
⌘End walls have large pores (sieve plates)
⌘Companion cells – join sieve tube members
⌘have nucleus
⌘Help move material into/out of Sieve Tubes
Members
Sieve plates
Sieve tube member
Companion cells
Ground Tissue

Worker tissue
 Ground Tissue
⌘Makes up the bulk of plant organs
⌘Between Dermal and Vascular tissue
⌘Functions: Metabolism, storage and
support (main functions of organ)

Root Stem Leaf

 Names for Ground tissue
⌘Pith,
⌘Cortex
⌘Endodermis
⌘Pericycle
⌘Mesophyll

⌘Mostly made up of parenchyma

Meristematic
Tissue

Growing Tissue
 Meristem Tissue
⌘Function: growth
⌘Characteristics
⌘Can divide quickly
⌘Big nuclei, small organelles
⌘often undifferentiated
⌘Can be identified by small cells, many with
condensed chromosomes (in mitosis)
⌘Exist in different collections around the
plant
 Types of Meristems
⌘Apical meristems - make the plant taller/deeper
⌘Called primary growth
⌘At tips of roots and stems
⌘Axillary – make new leaves (or stems)
⌘In buds
⌘Intercalary – make stems and leaves longer
⌘in multiple locations along stem and leaf
⌘Why grass grows after cutting
⌘Lateral Meristems – increase diameter of roots
and stems
⌘Called secondary growth
 Plant Organs

Roots, Stems
and Leaves

Organs: tissues that act together to serve a specific function

 Functions of plant organs:
⌘ROOTS: Anchorage, water/nutrient absorption
from soil, storage, water/nutrient transport

⌘STEMS: Support, water/nutrient transport

⌘LEAVES: Photosynthesis (food production)

Roots
 Roots
⌘ROOTS “the hidden half”
⌘Functions of roots:
⌘Anchor plant
⌘Absorption of water &
dissolved minerals
⌘Storage (surplus sugars,
starch)
⌘Conduction
water/nutrients
Anatomy of a root

epidermi
s corte
x
vascula
r
 Root Epidermis
⌘Outermost, single layer of cells
that:
⌘Protects (from diseases)
⌘Absorbs water and nutrients

⌘ROOT HAIRS: tubular

extensions of epidermal cells.
⌘Increase surface area of root, for
better water/ nutrient absorption
Root Hairs: water and mineral
absorption

Root hairs
increase surface
area for better
absorption
 Root Ground Tissue (cortex)
⌘In roots, ground tissue (a.k.a. cortex) provides
support, and often stores sugars and starch
⌘(for example: yams, sweet potato, etc.)

corte
x
 Root Cortex: Endodermis
⌘Endodermis: the innermost layer of the cortex
 Root cortex: Casparian strip
⌘Function: help control uptake of minerals
into xylem
⌘Structure: Waxy strip within endodermis –
⌘ water-impermeable strip
More Root Structures
⌘Apical Meristem –
produces new cells
inside the root tip
⌘Root Cap – protects
the plant as it grows
through the soil
⌘Lateral Root –
Smaller, secondary
roots
Primary Growth of the Root
⌘elongation of stems and
roots (taller and deeper)
1. Cells divide in
meristems
2. Cells grow longer in
the zone of elongation
3. Cells differentiate into
tissue types in zone of
differentiation
 Types of Roots
⌘Taproot – primary root
grows big and thick, the
secondary roots stay
small
⌘Dicots
⌘Fibrous roots –
extremely branched, root
branches all similar size
⌘Monocots
Stems
 Stems
⌘Functions:
⌘Support leaves and fruit
⌘Conduction water and sugars throughout the
plant
 Types of Stems

Monocot stem Dicot stem Root

 Types of stems
⌘Herbaceous vs. Woody

⌘ Only in gymnosperms and dicots

 Stem Anatomy

Internal structures External structures

• Apical Meristem • Buds
• Cork • Epidermis or Bark
• Cortex and Pith (ground • Leaf scar (in deciduous
tissue) trees)
• Vascular bundle • Node (where leaves and
lateral buds are attached
 Stem anatomy
⌘Dermal, ground and vascular tissues…
epidermi corte
s x

Vascular
pith
bundles
 Ground tissue: Cortex & pith

⌘Stores food (some)

⌘Site of Photosynthesis (when green)
⌘Support cells
⌘Pith – sometimes replaced by dead xylem
⌘Can break down to make hallow stem
Cortex

pith
 Stem Dermal Tissue
⌘If herbaceous may have: Epidermis, cuticle,
trichomes
⌘Woody plants have: Bark
⌘Bark – Periderm and phloem
⌘Cork – Dead when mature
⌘secrete a waxy substance before dying
⌘Physical barrier that protect the stem from drying
out, physical harm and pathogens
⌘Periderm – replaces the epidermis in woody plants
⌘Multiple layers thick (unlike normal epidermis)
⌘Made of cork cambium and cork
Bark
 Stems - Meristems
⌘Have all types of meristems
⌘Dicots and Gymnosperms have Secondary
growth (wider) because of cambium
⌘Vascular cambium
⌘Thin cylinders of meristem tissue In middle of
vascular bundles
⌘Makes new transport tissue
⌘Causes the rings in woods
⌘Cork cambium
⌘Makes cork (with tough cell walls)
 Stem Vascular tissue
⌘Vascular bundles – composed of both
xylem and phloem and some meristem
(*usually)
⌘ Xylem
⌘Conducts water
⌘Support
⌘Phloem
⌘Conducts food
⌘Support
 Vascular tissue: Trees
⌘Vascular tissue is located on the outer
layers of the tree.

bark
phloe
m
Vascular
Wood
cambium (Dead Xylem)

xyle
m
Heartwood –
•Darker
•Dead cells
•Stronger
•Function in
support

Sapwood –
•Living tissue
•Function
mostly in
transport
•lighter
 Vascular tissue forms rings in trees
⌘Annual rings: xylem formed by the
vascular cambium during one growing
season
⌘One ring = one year
 History of the tree: annual rings
Dendrochronology : tree time-keeping
1917 & 1945: Tree
Survives two World
1776: Declaration Wars 1969: Man
of US independence lands on Moon
1492: Columbus lands in
the Americas

1620: Pilgrims land 1861: Start of

in Plymouth, Mass. Civil War
1489: Tree is planted
by Native American
1971: Birth Year
of the IDIOT
who cut down
this tree!!!
WWW…
Life of a Tree
 Girdling: cutting around a tree

⌘Damages the phloem and xylem, eventually

killing the tree!
Leaves
 Leaves
⌘Functions:
⌘Photosynthesis (capture energy for the plant
and store as sugar)
⌘Transpiration – for transport of water
⌘General Structure:
VEIN

BLADE

PETIOLE
 Leaf Anatomy
⌘Maximizes Photosynthesis

derma
l
ground

vascula
r
derma
l
 Palisade
Mesophyll

Parenchyma

Spongy
Parenchyma
 Leaf – Dermal Tissue
⌘Epidermis – transparent for light can pass
⌘Might have trichomes
⌘Cuticle – Waxy to protect against drying out
⌘Lower epidermis: stomata with guard cells –
for gas exchange (CO2, H2O in; O2 out)
⌘On bottom to limit evaporation
 Leaf – Vascular Tissue
⌘Veins – made of
xylem and phloem
⌘Have a bundle sheath
that surround to hold
together and provide
support
 Leaf Ground Tissue
⌘Collectively called
Mesophyll
⌘Palisade Parenchyma –
long, skinny cells below
epidermis with lots of
chloroplasts
⌘Every cell has sunlight access
⌘Spongy Parenchyma –
round cells with air spaces
between
⌘Lets gases flow between
them
 Plant
Physiology

How organisms function

 Plant water transport

⌘How can water move from

the ground
all the way
to the top
of a 100 m
tall redwood
tree?
 Root Absorption
⌘Root Hairs use energy (active transport) to pump
mineral ions into root
⌘Increased concentration leads to osmosis of
water into the root
⌘Water travels through cells or along cell walls to
the endodermis
⌘Cells transport water and minerals into the
vascular bundle
⌘Casparian Strip – prevents water from exiting
vascular bundle
⌘Creates root pressure – higher pressure in the roots
How does xylem move water?
⌘Transpiration and Capillary Action
⌘Transpiration –water evaporates in leaves,
lowering pressure at the top of the plant
⌘Water absorbed into the roots moves up the “pipe”
to equalize the pressure
How does xylem move water?
⌘Transpiration –
⌘water evaporates in leaves, lowering pressure at
the top of the plant
⌘Water absorbed into the roots moves up the “pipe”
to equalize the pressure
⌘Capillary action also plays a role
⌘Adhesion causes water to stick to the sides
⌘Cohesion pulls water up in the middle
Water transport is like a straw
Transpiration
Low pressure
in leaves

up
ves
mo
ter
Wa
Aided by
capillary action

Root Pressure
- High pressure
in roots
Transpiration
 Translocation
⌘Transport of Sugar throughout the plant
from sources to sinks
⌘Source – produces more sugar than needed
⌘Sink – area that needs more sugar for growth
and storage
⌘Uses phloem loading/unloading
 Phloem Loading
At Source:
1. Carbs enter sieve tubes
at source (using active
transport)
⌘Uses energy
⌘High concentration in
phloem near source
2. Water moves into
phloem from xylem by
osmosis
⌘Makes high turgor
pressure near sources
Phloem Unloading
3. Bulk movement
⌘ Material moves towards
sink
At the sink:
4. Phloem unloading
⌘ Companion cells remove
sugar from phloem
⌘ (uses energy)
5. Water diffuses back to
xylem
 Plant
Response
 Tropisms
⌘Growth of a plant in response to a stimulus
⌘Positive – towards stimulus
⌘Negative – away from stimulus
⌘Types of tropism:
⌘Gravitropism – (aka geotropism) response to gravity
⌘Roots – positive; stems, negative
⌘Hydrotropism – response to water
⌘Positive (roots)
⌘Photostropism – response to light
⌘Positive
⌘Thigmotropism – Response to touch
⌘Positives (vines)
 Phototropism
⌘Growth in response to
light
⌘Positive
Gravitropism
Thigmotropism
⌘Response to
touch
⌘Positive– grow
towards a
supporting
structure
Let’s watch some plant responses!
 Nastic Movement
⌘Short, reversible movements to a stimulus
 Photoperiodism
⌘response to
daylight length
⌘Correlates with
seasons
⌘linked with
flowering time and
other seasonal
changes
 Dormancy
⌘Period of decreased activity
⌘Stimulated by climate
⌘long nights in cold climates and dry periods
⌘Dormant seeds are stimulated to grow by the
breakdown of growth inhibitors
⌘extreme temperatures or the presence of specific
nutrients
 Plant
Hormones
 Plant Hormones
⌘ Chemical compounds made by plants
that cause specific responses
⌘ Effective at very low concentrations

14:00 min
 Cell
Elongation
 1. AUXINS
⌘Promote cell elongation
⌘Involved in tropism
⌘In Meristems
⌘Apical dominance
⌘Favoring upwards growth
instead of branching
2. Gibberellins
⌘Promote stem elongation
⌘Can affect leaf growth
⌘Involved in flowering,
dormancy, germination and
other responses
3. Cytokinin
⌘Promote cell division and organ
differentiation
⌘One of the factors that control mitosis
⌘Works with auxin
4. Abscisic Acid
• Promotes seed dormancy
• Causes stomata closing
• Helps leaves drop in falls
5. Florigen
⌘Helps trigger
blossoming
6. ETHYLENE
⌘Gaseous hormone,
very simple formula (C2H4)

⌘Ethylene promotes
fruit ripening!

Air
Ethylene
“One rotten apple spoils the barrel”
⌘Why?
⌘Probably due to
ethylene!
⌘Rotten apple produces
lots of ethylene!
⌘Causes others to rot
Debbie Meyer Green Bags
 Avocado ripening…

⌘Place in a paper bag, with a ripe banana!