Chapter 2.2

MAJOR CROP
DISEASES
MANAGEMENT
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to crop diseases
2. Management of diseases in oil palm plantation
3. Management of disease in rubber plantation
4. management of diseases in rice plantation
5. Other methods for disease management

Sub-Topic Outline
2.2 Management of diseases in oil palm plantation
2.2.1 Field Diseases of Oil Palm
2.2.2 Nursery Diseases of Oil Palm
2.2.3 Seed Diseases of Oil Palm

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, the students

should be able to:
• Identify and differentiate various types
of diseases on oil palm.
• Describe symptoms and damage of
various diseases on oil palm.
• Understand the control strategies for
various diseases on oil palm.
2.2.0 Introduction
• Major devastating disease in South East
Asia (SEA) – Basal stem rot (BSR) or
Ganoderma disease – Malaysia and
Indonesia
• Other Major devastating diseases
(Africa and America):
• Vascular wilt - Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. elaeidis
• Bud rot - Phytophthora
palmivora
• Sudden wilt - Phytomonas
staheli
• Red ring - Bursaphelenchus
cocophilus
• Lethal wilt – unknown
(Phytoplasma)
• Other diseases - infecting seeds, nursery
seedlings and field palms – are minor – very
low incidence and under control.
Major Oil Palm
Diseases
Field Diseases Nursery Diseases Seed Diseases
‘Crown disease’ Anthracnose Leaf Brown germ disease
Pestalotiopsis leaf spot spots disease Corticium Schizophyllum seed infection
Sooty mould leaf spot Nursery root
Algae leaf spot diseases
Marasmius bunch rot Nursery bud rot
Fruit bunch stalk rot Fruit Blast disease
rot Pythium root rot
Orange spotting (OS)

Stem wet rot
Charcoal base rot Upper
stem rot (USR) Basal Stem
Rot (BSR)
i. Basal Stem Rot (BSR)
• The Ganoderma fungus colonized the ground tissues of the stem before invade the
vascular elements and block the xylem vessels (Ariffin and Idris, 1989;1991)
• As a result, water and nutrient are limited to be absorbed by the oil palm, leading to the
foliar symptoms of yellowing and wilting and finally palm dead.
• Legumes act as alternative host for G. boninense in oil palm plantations through
inoculation with G. boninense the species of Colapogonium muconoides is considered the
most suseptible while Mucuna bracteata is the most tolerant and preferable as LCC.
• In Peninsular Malaysia, high BSR incidence was previously found in coastal soil, but
recently also found to be high in peat, inland and lateritic soils
• It attack any age of palm as young as 12-24 months and infection becomes more frequent
after 4 or 5 years in replanting or under-planting areas
• BSR is also reported to be high in Sabah & Sarawak
• In Malaysia, the disease incidence was 3.71%, and estimated yield losses due to
Ganoderma disease is amounted to RM1.5 billion a year. (Arif et al.,2011; Idris et al.,2011)
• Ganoderma BSR is about to become a worldwide concern of oil palm industry and the
most destructive OP disease posses serious economic impact.
G. boninense
• Pathogenic (the
G. zonatum most aggressive
2.5 cm/month)
• Pathogenic
G. (moderately – 1.9
miniatocinctum cm/month)
G. tornatum • Pathogenic (least
• Non-pathogenic aggressive –1.5
(saprophytic) cm/month)
avirulence virulence
The Species of Ganoderma Fungus (Idris, 1999)

Economic importance
At subclinical/diseased standing palm

• reduces the weight and the no. of fruit bunches
• produced only 19% to 43% of FFB yield (Khairudin, 1993)
• A 31 – 67% of BSR disease incidence can cause around 26 – 45%
reduction in fresh fruit bunches (FFB) yield.
• Results in less oil and more moisture in mesocarp, lower oil/bunch (Rao et.
al., 2003)
Severely infection - palms collapsed/dead (no yield)
Malaysia – yield losses due to Ganoderma is estimated RM 1.5 billion a year

(Arif et al., 2011).
Detection and Identification of Ganoderma Disease
Visual Symptoms (Fruiting Ganoderma selective medium Polymerase Chain

bodies/basidiomata of (GSM) can be used to confirm Reaction-DNA-based:
Ganoderma at the base of the disease PCR-DNA primers
palm indicates the later stage
of the disease)
Field Detection of Ganoderma
External symptoms Internal symptoms
Immature palm – yellow leaves, mottling and Dry rot in internal tissues at the base of the
necrosis stem
Open leaves are shorter with the tips becoming Extensive decay by Ganoderma is likely to
chlorotic and necrotic fracture the base of the palm
The disease retards palm growth and cause The trunk may become hallow in standing
unopen spears palms
Mature palm – multiple unopened spears and

necrosis develop from oldest leaves to the Roots become friable with their internal tissues
crown dry and powdery
After the appearance of the symptoms diseased

palms usually die within 6-24 months (immature
palms) and 12-36 months (mature palms)
Mode of Spread
Mycelium contact - Contact between healthy Basidiospores – play a role in spreading the
roots with diseased tissues left buried in soil disease, through insects vector but the
(Flood et al., 2000; Idris, 2011) evidence is still lacking.
Healthy Disease
Healthy root
palm d palm
Diseased
root
Source of Order: Coleoptera Family:

Roots contact Ganoderm Endomychidae Species:
with a Eumorphus sp.
diseased inoculum Location: SALCRA Plantation
tissues (Taee, Serian, Sarawak)
At 15 years of
planting, the
incidence of BSR was
reported as high as:
Ex-coconut – 51% Ex-oil palm – 42% Ex-rubber – 6% Jungle – 9%

Basal Stem Rot Control Strategies
BSR control measures are aimed to:
• Minimizing disease incidence in replanting

• Prolonging the productive life of the infected palms
• Delaying the progress of Ganoderma infection
An integrated management of Ganoderma in the field includes
• Sanitation
• Biological
• Chemical
BSR Census (Monitoring) Program
• In plantation with known history of

Ganderma, a comprehensive survey of the
disease should be carried out
• Compulsory census must be carried out
within a year before replanting
• Infected palms are marked and tied with a
bearing tape
• Labelling infected palms on a map or GPS
(global positioning system) is important for
future reference
Symptoms
DSI Description (Mature palms)
0 Uninfected palm (healthy). No fruiting body, foliar symptom and stem rotting at the base. Using early
detection methods (e.g. GSM or PCR-DNA) showing no (negative) Ganoderma.
1 Early infection or mild infected palm. Presence of white mycelium or fruiting body (e.g. One small white
button or bracket shape form). Palm standing not showing foliar symptoms and no or slightly stem rotting
(<10%) at the base. Confirmed presence of Ganoderma fungus using detection methods (e.g. GSM or PCR-
DNA).
2 Moderate infected palm. Presence of white mycelium or fruiting body (e.g. small white button or bracket
shape form). Palm standing showing foliar symptoms (<50%) and stem rotting (<30%) at the base.
Confirmed presence of Ganoderma fungus using detection methods (e.g. GSM or PCR-DNA).
3/4 Severely infected / very severely infected or dead palm. Presence of white mycelium or fruiting body (e.g.
small white button or bracket shape form). Palm standing showing severe foliar symptoms (>50%) and
severe stem rotting (>30%) at the base. Palm dead/collapsed showing severe foliar symptoms and stem
rotting at the base. Confirmed presence of Ganoderma fungus using detection methods (e.g. GSM or PCR-
DNA).
DSI Description (immature palms) Symptoms
0 Uninfected immature palm (healthy). No fruiting body, foliar symptom and stem rotting at the base. Using
early detection methods (e.g. GSM or PCR-DNA) showing no (negative) Ganoderma.
1 Moderate/Mild and severe/very severe infected immature palm. One sided yellowing leaves with the bole or
stem slightly rotting at the base. In severe infection, palm dead with the bole or stem completely rotting at
the base. Confirmed presence of Ganoderma fungus using detection methods (e.g. GSM or PCR-DNA).
Disease Severity Index (DSI) for Ganoderma

• Based on the integrated Ganoderma management (IGM) program, the

following actions are recommended:
• Minimize the impact of Ganoderma infection
• Eradicate infected palm before it become source of infection to
neighbouring palms
• It is recommended sanitation to be carried out if young palm (<10 yrs) has
been infected with Ganoderma
• Sanitation is also recommended to be carried out 2 years before
replanting and the soil should be ploughed thoroughly.

Biology and
Epidemiology
Sanitation Early
• Removal of infected palms
• 1. Existing Planting Detection
• 2. At Replanting
• 3. Nursery Seedlings
Methods
Chemical Integrated
control Ganoderma Resistance Oil
Palm
• Fungici Management Materials
des
• Fumiga (IGM)
nts
Beneficial
(trace)
elements Ganoderma
through Genome
fertilizer Biological
formulation Control
Agents
• a) Trichoderma
• b) Endophytic Fungi
• c) Bacteria
• d) Basidiomycetes
• e) Actinomycetes
• f) Mycorrhizae
DISEASE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT IN EXISTING PLANTINGS
Sanitation by Removal of Diseased Palm (DSI – 1, 2, 3 & 4).
Fumigant Dazomet for stump treatment (DSI – 2, 3 & 4).
Fungicide (DSI–1 & 2).
Soil Mounding (DSI–1 & 2)–e.g. Sime Darby

1. Sanitation by removal (deboling) of infected palm
BSR census
Pushing infected palm – backhoe or excavator
Excavating stump and root masses (1.5 - 2m length X 1.5 - 2m width X 1.0 - 1.5m depth)
Refilling with nearby soil
Chipping trunk, stump and root masses (<10 cm thickness)
Resupply palm, if the existing stand < 10 years old.

2.Fumigant dazomet – stump treatment
Dazomet moved into the stump and caused
Field study - Ganoderma inoculum significantly death to the Ganoderma fungus, therefore
reduced when infected stumps treated with reducing the spread of Ganoderma disease
dazomet. within the oil palm plantation.
BSR census Stump/trunk cut down using chainsaw
Apply dazomet (basamid) at 500 g/stump Spraying water with 250 ml
Cover with polyethene bag or with soil

3. Fungicides – Curative treatment
• Fungicide treatment with hexaconazole for infected standing palms with no foliar symptoms or
productive to prolong lifespan of infected palm
BSR census
Remove the old frond butt using chisel or chainsaw
Drilling 2 holes into the trunk/stem at the base
using motorized drill engine attached with drill bit
Prepare fungicide solution (4.5 g a.i + 7 L water)
Injecting fungicide solution into drilling hole with a total of 6 L (3 L/hole) using injector
attached with motorized knapsack spryer
Spraying 1 L fungicide solution onto the stem/trunk at the base

Control of Ganoderma at Replanting area
Replanting before and during Nursery - Seedling
Sanitation by excavating old

Biological Control Agents
palm stands and ploughing
Biological Control Agents Beneficial Elements
Beneficial Elements
Integrated Control
Sanitation by excavating old stands & ploughing
Preventative Treatment (Biological Control Agents)
Trichoderma
Endophytic Fungi
• Incorporated Hendersonia GanoEF1 (endophytic fungus) into organic materials as carriers.
• Oil palm roots increased the levels of active compound / enzyme activities: lignin and chitinase, glucanase,
peroxidase (PO) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) - which are known to be physical barrier to
Ganoderma infection.
Bacteria
• The product contains Streptomyces GanoSA1 (soil actinomycete), vermiculite and biochar.
Basidiomycetes
Actinomycetes
Mycorrhizae
ii. Crown disease
Pathogen: Fusarium spp.
Symptoms:
• Genetically disease
• Tissues affected spears are reddish-brown.
• The affected area spreads through the unopened spear,
damaging immature pinnae.
• As the spear opens, it develops a very characteristics “bent’
and distorted shape, with the main bend in the area of
initial infection.
• The pinnae in this section of the frond may be reduced to
short stumps
• Once the fronds opens up, the rotting usually ceases and
the fronds expands and matures
Control:
• In areas where the disease is persistent, cutting back the
spear as close as possible to the base, followed by drenching
with a fungicides (e.g. thiabendazole) may reduce the
spread of the disease.
iii. Wither tip disease
Pathogen:
 Fusarium spp.
Symptoms:
 Infection occurs in the unopened spear, and is not readily observed
until the frond unfurls.
 Water-soaked lesions develop on the unopened fronds.
 The lesions are roughly circular or oval, with a pale brown border
around a darker brown central portion.
 Up to half the frond may be rotted by the time it emerges and starts
to open, but the disease appears to stop spreading once the fronds
has fully open.
 Infection of the rachis may also cause frond tip failure, and the final
section of the frond will hang vertically or drop off.
Controls:
 it is essential to monitor progenies and planting material so that
susceptible parents and material can be identified and rejected.
 The disease rarely reaches economically significant levels, although
the disease can ne managed y cutting out the affected spear tissue
and drenching with a fungicide, the is rarely an economically viable
procedure.
iv. Upper Stem Rot
Pathogen: (Basidiomycete) – Phellinus noxius
Symptoms:
• Upper part of stem collapse
• Early stage, upper fronds with basidiocarp of Phellinus
noxius or Ganoderma or both
• Usually the symptoms are being hidden by the
epiphytes growing in abundance
Control:
• Proper harvesting and pruning may reduced incidence
of the disease
• The most satisfactory control is achieved when lesions
are detected in the early stages.
• If a lesion is detected, the palm should be marked
clearly and recorded-surgery may be used to remove
the lesion and treated with a preservative (e.g. coal tar)
to prevent secondary infection.
v. Marasmius bunch rot (MBR)
Pathogen:
Marasmius palmivorus
Symptoms:
• During the initial stages, white mycelium threads
spread over the surface of the fruit.
• As the disease progresses, the mycelium enters the
space between individual fruitlets
• The infection of fruit result in an increase in
the concentration of FFA in the palm oil produced.
Control:
• Manages the sources of inoculum and
maintain hygienic plantation conditions.
• Large masses of colonized tissue should be collected
and either thrown into the interrow or remove.
vi. Vascular wilt disease (VWD) (Fusarium)
Pathogen:
• Fusarium oxysporum
Symptoms:
• The pathogen enters the palm roots through damaged or necrotic tissues.
• The first symptom is the appearance of a bright yellow frond between fronds 4
and 15 in canopy.
• Other fronds in the vicinity of this frond become affected, resulting in tip
desiccation and frond death
• The colour of vascular bundles changes from orange to brown and finally to
black
• Water conducting vessels become blocked in these areas and finally become
necrotic
Controls
• There are no effective treatments
• Purchase disease-free planting material
• Ensure seedlings are healthy and that field nutrition is optimized
• Adopt[ hygienic planting method
vii. Red ring disease
Pathogen:
• Bursaphelenchus cocophilus (nematode) Vector: Rhynchophorus palmarum
(L), American palm weevil
Symptoms:
• the nematode is transmitted during weevil feeding and oviposition
• Once in the palm the infection may result in two different symptoms.
• The classical symptom is yellowing of fronds and rapid death of the palm.
• A second symptom is “little leaf syndrome” which is manifested in stunted
growth of fronds.
• Symptoms include band of discolored, reddishbrown tissue about 5 cm
from edge of leaf stems; discoloration extends into leaf petioles.
• Red ring (3-4 cm wide) may appear up to 8 feet (2.4 m) above soil line.
Roots are similarly discolored, with soft, spongy cortex. Apparent
phytotoxin in the red ring. Damage causes reduction in water uptake by
tree.
Control:
• Regular inspections are made to detect and eliminate R. palmarum
• Mass trapping of the vector of RRD – using pheromone
2.2.2 Nursery diseases
• Abnormal Growths and
Deformities due to Rolled leaf
genetics disorders and
abiotic factors
Grass leaf
Crinkled leaf
Chimaera Collante
Twisted leaf
Herbicide / Fertilizer Injury

Anthracnose
Common name: Seedling anthracnose
Class : Deuteromycetes
• Family : Coelomycetes • Family : Melanconiaceae • Family : Polystigmataceae

• Species : Botryodiplodia • Species : Melanconium spp • Species : Glomerella
Oder : Melanconiales
palmarum • Infects leaves with similar cingulate
Oder : Sphaeriales
Oder : Sphaeropsidales
• Early symptoms is shown symptoms as • Symptoms of Glomerella

by small translucent spots Botryodiplodia spp. Starts are quite distinct. The spots
on leaves. Spots enlarge with appearance of small develop between the
and change to dark brown hyaline spots, later veins, later expanding into
followed by pale brown becoming light brown, like elongated streaks,
halo surrounding them. The a water soaked bordered by pale yellow
central region of the spot appearance. A pale yellow halo.
contains the spores margin later develops
producing structure. around the infected area.
Anthracnose
Common name: Seedling anthracnose
• Primarily by spores, spread rapidly by rain and excessive watering of seedlings.
Mode of Spread
• Seedlings after 3 months of transplanting are most vulnerable mainly due to:
• Over crowding
Stage of palm attacked • Excessive watering
• Over shade
• Capable of destroying the whole nursery if left uncontrolled. Incidence of

Economic Importance • 5-20% is common due to transplanting shock.
• Control at early stage by spraying thibendazol (80% a.i used at 0.1%) or captan (50% a.i used at
0.5%) with the following requirements:
Disease Control • Spray only when the foliage is dry
• Spray with adjuvant, to avoid being washed off by rain
• Keep the disease incidence low by maintaining balance nutrients in soil, adequate water supply
and shading, minimal damage and shock during transplanting into nursery.
Management • Avoid over crowding the nursery, avoid using peat as medium for planting and to remove
infected seedlings immediately.
• Spray weekly or every 10 days until all symptoms disappear.
Leaf Spot
Common name : Nursery leaf spot disease
• Oder : Moniliales Oder : Pleosporales
Class :
Loculooascomycetes
• Family : Dematiaceae Family : Pleosporaceae
• Species : Curvularia eragrostidis, Species : Cochliobolus
Deuteromycetes
Drechslera halodes and carbonus

Helminthosporium spp • Attacks spear. Showing small circular,
• Cause tiny brown spot lesions which are translucent yellow spots, visible on both
scattered but would not enlarge and side of the leaf. The spot develop into
become chlorotic. They are numerous light brown and later form a lesion. The
and localized, distally or centrally on the lesion shape then becomes elliptical.
Class :
leaf. Some coalesced lesions would cause Severe infection at the lowest and oldest
rotting. leaves could kill the seedling.
Leaf Spot
• Attacks spear. • Cause tiny brown • Similar symptom as • Cause small green
Showing small spot lesions which Drechslera. Attack spots, later become
circular, translucent are scattered but young leaves and bright yellow, with a
yellow spots, visible would not enlarge spear, causing tiny broad and yellowish-
Curvularia eragrostidis
Helminthosporium spp
on both side of the and become yellow spots. green halo. It then
Cochliobolus carbonus
leaf. chlorotic. • Narrow band of blends with the
• The spot develop • They are numerous tissues around the healthy tissues. The
Drechslera halodes
into light brown and and localized, distally spots become centre of the lesions
later form a lesion. or centrally on the chlorotic and is a tiny, pale brown
The lesion shape leaf. Some coalesced necrotic. The spot, which later
then becomes lesions would cause chlorotic zone darkens.
elliptical. Severe rotting. appears as a halo
infection at the ground in the
lowest and oldest infected area.
leaves could kill the
seedling.
Leaf Spot
• Mainly by airborne spores.
Mode of Spread • The primary lesions produce spores which spread by heavy rain or excessive watering.
Stage of palm attacked • Main nursery stage and pre-nurseries.
• A slight attack spreads rapidly to the surrounding seedlings.

Symptoms of Damage • Attack are severe under wet condition or when seedlings are raised in peat soil.
• Control at the early stage of infection, with Thibendazole (80% a.i used at 0.1%) for Cochliobolus
and Thiram (80% a.i used at 0.2%) or Captan (50% a.i used at 0.5%) for Curvularia, Drechslera and
Disease Control Helminthosporium.
• Application should be made at intervals of 5-7 days until control has been achieved. Adjuvants
must always be added.
• Good management practices as described earlier are important to keep low incidence of
Management disease. Where seedlings are very severely affected, these should be removed and destroyed.
2.2.3 Seed Diseases
Brown germ disease Schizophyllum Seed Infection
Common name : Schizophyllum

Common Name: Brown Germ Seed Infection
• Class : Deuteromycetes • Class : Basidiomycetes
• Order : Moniliales • Order : Agaricales
• Family : Dematiaceae • Family : Agaricaceae
• Species : Aspergillus spp. • Species : Schizophyllum commune
2.2.3 Seed Diseases
Schizophyllum Seed Infection
• Fungi causing oil palm seed diseases are Aspergillus spp., Pennicillium spp., Trichoderma spp.,
Biology Fusarium spp., Chaetomium spp., Rhizopus spp., Schizophyllum commune and several types of
bacteria. Schizophyllum commune is one fungus confirmed causing the disease.
Mode of Spread • The disease spread from infected to healthy seeds by mycelium contact.
• During pre-heating and germinating stage of seed production mainly due to:
• Poor condition of seed storage
• Ambient temperature of 38℃- 40 ℃
Stage of Attack • High seed moisture
• The fungus is common on very old fruits left in the field. Seeds could also be affected during
storage.
• Appearance of small white patches of mycelium over seed surface, later colonizing the inner
Disease Symptoms shell and kernel. Moisture in the affected seeds will induce production of basidiomata.
• Schizophyllum kills the embryo and destroys the surrounding kernel tissues.
• The extent varies from slight infection to a total destruction of the embryo. Common for seed
Economic Importance
producers to experience 1-4% losses due to this disease.
• Soak the seeds immediately in a solution of 0.2% Thiram for a few minutes. If incidence exceeds
Disease Control Disease
2%, soak the seeds in 0.1% Dithane plus 0.05% Benlate for 15 minute and dry.
Management • Infected seeds must be discarded immediately. Moisture content should be maintained below
17% (dry weight).

Chapter 2.2

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Chapter 2.2

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MAJOR CROP

2. Management of diseases in oil palm plantation

3. Management of disease in rubber plantation

4. management of diseases in rice plantation

5. Other methods for disease management

2.2.1 Field Diseases of Oil Palm

2.2.2 Nursery Diseases of Oil Palm

2.2.3 Seed Diseases of Oil Palm

At the end of this topic, the students

Orange spotting (OS)

The Species of Ganoderma Fungus (Idris, 1999)

At subclinical/diseased standing palm

Severely infection - palms collapsed/dead (no yield)

Malaysia – yield losses due to Ganoderma is estimated RM 1.5 billion a year

Detection and Identification of Ganoderma Disease

Visual Symptoms (Fruiting Ganoderma selective medium Polymerase Chain

External symptoms Internal symptoms

Mature palm – multiple unopened spears and

After the appearance of the symptoms diseased

Source of Order: Coleoptera Family:

Ex-coconut – 51% Ex-oil palm – 42% Ex-rubber – 6% Jungle – 9%

Basal Stem Rot Control Strategies

BSR control measures are aimed to:

• Minimizing disease incidence in replanting

An integrated management of Ganoderma in the field includes

BSR Census (Monitoring) Program

• In plantation with known history of

Disease Severity Index (DSI) for Ganoderma

• Based on the integrated Ganoderma management (IGM) program, the

2.2.1 Field Diseases of Oil Palm

DISEASE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT IN EXISTING PLANTINGS

Sanitation by Removal of Diseased Palm (DSI – 1, 2, 3 & 4).

Fumigant Dazomet for stump treatment (DSI – 2, 3 & 4).

Fungicide (DSI–1 & 2).

Soil Mounding (DSI–1 & 2)–e.g. Sime Darby

Pushing infected palm – backhoe or excavator

Refilling with nearby soil

Chipping trunk, stump and root masses (<10 cm thickness)

Resupply palm, if the existing stand < 10 years old.

BSR census Stump/trunk cut down using chainsaw

Apply dazomet (basamid) at 500 g/stump Spraying water with 250 ml

Cover with polyethene bag or with soil

Remove the old frond butt using chisel or chainsaw

Drilling 2 holes into the trunk/stem at the base

using motorized drill engine attached with drill bit

Prepare fungicide solution (4.5 g a.i + 7 L water)

Spraying 1 L fungicide solution onto the stem/trunk at the base

Replanting before and during Nursery - Seedling

Sanitation by excavating old

Biological Control Agents Beneficial Elements

Pathogen: (Basidiomycete) – Phellinus noxius

Herbicide / Fertilizer Injury

• Family : Coelomycetes • Family : Melanconiaceae • Family : Polystigmataceae

• Early symptoms is shown symptoms as • Symptoms of Glomerella

• Capable of destroying the whole nursery if left uncontrolled. Incidence of

• Oder : Moniliales Oder : Pleosporales

Drechslera halodes and carbonus

Stage of palm attacked • Main nursery stage and pre-nurseries.

• A slight attack spreads rapidly to the surrounding seedlings.

Brown germ disease Schizophyllum Seed Infection

Common name : Schizophyllum

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