Jointing processes

 Welding “Fusion jointing”: complete fusion between base metal and filler
metal , filler metal = base metal in melting points”

 Brazing “Non fusion jointing”: melting point of filler metal lower than base
metal
Welding process definition

In the welding process, metal is melted to bridge the parts to be joined, so

that on solidification of the weld metal the parts become united. Welding is
often done with pressure, sometimes in conjunction with heat, to produce
the weld.
Different welding techniques include:

•Gas metal arc welding

•Submerged arc welding
•Flux-cored arc welding
•Electroslag welding
•Laser beam welding
•Electron beam welding
Welding processes categories

 Fusion processes - The surfaces of two components to be joined are cleaned, placed close
together and heated, forming a pool of molten metal that connects the components. A filler rod
may be used to add metal to the joint. This category includes processes such as:

• Oxyacetylene welding
• Shielded metal arc welding
• Gas metal arc welding
• Gas tungsten arc welding

 Solid phase processes - The metals to be joined are not melted. Instead, they are heated,
usually by friction generated by sliding the parts together under a normal load. This softens the
metals and removes surface contamination. The sliding is then stopped, the normal load is
increased and the two surfaces join together. Friction welding is widely used to join
axisymmetric components in two different types of steels.
Common Welding processes

AWS EN

 SMAW  MMAW

 GMAW  MIG/MAG

 FCAW  FCAW

 GTAW  TIG
General components of welding processes

 Source of energy

 Source of shielding

 Filler metal “ Optional”

 SMAW- Shielded Metal Arc Welding uses the heat of an electric
arc between a covered metal electrode and the work (pipe,
plate, etc). Shielding comes from the decomposition of the
electrode flux coating. Filler is supplied by the electrode core
wire and covering (iron powder and alloys).

This process is usually done manually. The basic equipment is a

power source, an electrode holder, a work clamp and the
electrode. Electrodes operate variously on alternating current,
direct current electrode positive (reverse polarity) or direct
current electrode negative (straight polarity).
SMAW welding metallurgy

Weld is strengthened by adding alloying elements and by

incorporating iron powder in the electrode covering(flux).
Some ingredients in the covering may attract and hold
moisture (a source of hydrogen) which causes cracking in
certain welds.
. These have identification numbers ending in 5,6 or 8. Once
removed from containers they require electrically heated
storage in a vented oven capable of holding the electrodes
between 250 – 350 ⁰C. (Low hydrogen electrodes should be
stored in their original containers until ready for use)
The principle of the method
EQUIPMENT

Power control Power source.

panel Transformer/Recti
fier
Electrode oven
(Up to 350 °C) Holding Oven
(Up to 200 °C)
Electrodes
Inverter power
Power return source
cable
Electrode holder

Safety visor Power cable

(With dark lens) *
Common Welding processes

SMAW electrode identification system

EXXXX
(E 7018 )

Electrode
Common Welding processes

SMAW electrode identification system

EXXXX
(E 7018 )

Strength
Common Welding processes

SMAW electrode identification system

EXXXX
(E 7018 )

Position
Common Welding processes

SMAW electrode identification system

EXXXX
(E 7018 )

Coating / Operating characteristics

Welding positions

F = Flat

V = Vertical

V down = Vertical down

OH = Overhead

H = Horizontal

H fillet = Horizontal fillet

Welding positions
Welding positions
Welding positions

1- All positions

2- Flat or horizontal fillet only

3- not used to present time

4- downhill progression
Coating / operation characteristics

Low hydrogen electrodes

• Types end in a ‘5’, ‘6’, or ‘8’

• Purchase in sealed, metal containers

• Store after opening in heated, vented oven

• Limit atmospheric exposure

 Coating, Current and Polarity Types Designated By the Fourth
Digit in the Electrode Classification Number
Digit Coating Weld Current

0 * *

1 Cellulose Potassium ac, dcrp, dcsp

2 Titania sodium ac, dcsp

3 Titania potassium ac, dcsp, dcrp

4 Iron Powder Titania ac, dcsp, dcrp

5 Low hydrogen sodium dcrp

* Note :
6 Low hydrogen potassium ac, dcrp When the fourth (or last) digit is 0, the
type of coating and current to be used
7 Iron powder iron oxide ac, dcsp are determined by the third digit.

8 Iron powder low hydrogen ac, dcrp, dcsp

Coating / operation characteristics
Coating / operation characteristics

C1 Ni 2.5%

C2 Ni 3.5%

C3 Ni 1.0%

D1 Mo 1.5% Mn 0.3%

D2 Mo 1.75% Mn 0.3%

G Mo 0.3% Cr 0.5% Ni 0.2%

Mn 0.1% V 1%
Stainless steel electrodes

 Stainless steel contain at least 12% Cr.

 Make passive layer of chromium oxide protects metal.

 Stainless steel alloys, such as:

304, 304L, 310, 316, 316L

Stainless steel electrodes

 St.st 308 general purpose in stainless steel.

 St.st 316 welds 316

 St.st 309 welds dissimilar metals to stainless steel.

SMAW Equipment
SMAW Equipment
The principle of the method
GMAW Equipment

External wire Transformer/

feed unit Rectifier

Internal wire
feed system Power cable &
hose assembly
Power control
panel
Liner for wire
15kg wire spool

Power return Welding gun

cable* assembly
GMAW Equipment
Common Welding processes

GMAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-6)
Common Welding processes

GMAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-6)
Electrode
Common Welding processes

GMAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-6)
Rod
Common Welding processes

GMAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-6)
Strength
Common Welding processes

GMAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-6)
S-Solid wire
T-Tubular wire
Common Welding processes

GMAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-6)
Chemical composition
The principle of the method
GTAW Equipment
Common Welding processes

GTAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-3)
Electrode
Common Welding processes

GTAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-3)
Electrode
Common Welding processes

GTAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-3)
Rod
Common Welding processes

GTAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-3)
Strength
Common Welding processes

GTAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-3)
S-Solid wire
T-Tubular wire
Common Welding processes

GTAW electrode identification system

ERXXS-X
(ER70S-3)
Chemical composition
The principle of the method
FCAW Equipment
FCAW Equipment Continuous wire

Wire feed unit

Gas hose

Torch conduit
Power cable

Gas
Welding torch
cylinder

Power source

Arc

Workpiece
Earth clamp

Return cables
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Electrode
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Min. tensile strength in ksi or x1000 psi
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Welding position [ 0= flat or Horizontal, 1= All position ]
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Tubular electrode “Flux cored”
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Usability “Specific requirement for polarity and general operating characteristic”
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Shielding gas type: “M= 75-80%Ar/ Balanced CO2 mixed gas,
C= 100% CO2 , Blank= No shielding gas”
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Improved toughness “ J= Electrode will produce welds with CVN
values of at least 20ft.lbf @-40ᵒF (27 J @ -40ᵒC)”
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Supplemental mechanical property requirements “ D or Q = will meet
requirement when welded with high heat input and low heat input procedures”
Common Welding processes

FCAW electrode identification system

E X X T – X X – J X HX
(E71T-9M-JH4)
Diffusible hydrogen levels “ H4, H8 or H16 = there will be a maximum of 4ml
(or 8 or 16) hydrogen per 100 grams weld metal ”
 These usability designators can be sub-divided into the two main categories of electrodes as follows:
- Self-Shielded, Flux-Cored Electrodes: T-3, -4, -6, -7, -8, -10, -11, -13, -14, -G, -GS
- Gas-Shielded, Flux-Cored Electrodes: T-1, -2, -5, -9, -12, -G, - GS
 Submerged arc wire
The principle
Straightening rollers
of the method
Feed rollers

Slag sieve
Power lead
Flux hopper
Contact tube Excess flux recovery system

Extension tube

Electrode guide Flux delivery tube

Electrode Slag
Flux bed Weld bead

Work piece

Lead to earth
The principle of the method
SAW Equipment
SAW Equipment
SAW Equipment
Common Welding processes

SAW electrode identification system

FXXX–EXXX
(F7A2-EM12K)
Common Welding processes

SAW electrode identification system

FXXX–EXXX
(F7A2-EM12K)
Flux
Common Welding processes

SAW electrode identification system

FXXX–EXXX
(F7A2-EM12K)

Minimum tensile strength x 10,000 PSI

Common Welding processes

SAW electrode identification system

FXXX–EXXX
(F7A2-EM12K)
Condition of heat treatment
A: as welded, P: post weld heat treated
Common Welding processes

SAW electrode identification system

FXXX–EXXX
(F7A2-EM12K)
Lowest temperature at which impact strength of weld
metal meet or exceed x 20 ft-lb (27J)
Common Welding processes

SAW electrode identification system

FXXX–EXXX
(F7A2-EM12K)

Electrode
Common Welding processes

SAW electrode identification system

FXXX–EXXX
(F7A2-EM12K)
Classification of electrode used in depositing the
weld metal
Heat treatment of Steel
Introduction

Metals and alloys may not posses all the desired properties in the finished product.
Alloying and heat treatment are two methods which are extensively used for controlling
material properties.

In Heat Treatment:
The microstructures of materials are modified.
 The resulting phase transformation influences mechanical properties like strength,
ductility, toughness, hardness and wear resistance.

Purpose of Heat Treatment is to increase service life of a product by increasing its

strength or hardness, or prepare the material for improved manufacturability
Heat treatment processes

H. A. N. T.
S.
Normalizin Surface
Hardening Annealing Tempering
g hardening
Hardening

Hardening is performed to impart strength and hardness to alloys by heating up to a

certain temperature, depending on the material, and cooling it rapidly.

Steel is heated and held there until its carbon is dissolved, and then cooled rapidly, the
carbon does not get sufficient time to escape and get dissipated in the lattice structure.
This helps in locking the dislocation movements when stresses are applied.

Quenching is performed to cool hot metal rapidly by immersing it in brine (salt water),
water, oil, molten salt, air or gas.

Quenching sets up residual stresses in the workpiece and sometimes results in cracks.
Residual stresses are removed by another process called annealing.
Continuous cooling transformation
Temperin
g

Martensite achieved by quenching is very hard and brittle.

Tempering is applied to hardened steel to

reduce brittleness,
increase ductility, and toughness and
relieve stresses in martensite structure.
In this process, the steel is heated to lower critical temperature (400 - 600 °C) keeping it
there for about one hour and then cooled slowly at prescribed rate.
This process increases ductility and toughness but also reduces hardness, strength and
wear resistance marginally.
Increase in tempering temperature lowers the hardness.
Temperin
g
Annealing

Annealing is performed to
reduce hardness,
remove residual stresses,
improve toughness,
restore ductility, and to alter various mechanical, electrical or magnetic
properties of material through refinement of grains.

Cooling rate is very slow around 10⁰C per hour.

Process is carried out in a controlled atmosphere of inert

gas to avoid oxidation.

Used to achieve ductility in work hardened steels.

Normalizing

 The process is similar to annealing and is carried out to avoid excessive softness in the
material.
 The material is heated above austenitic phase (1100 °C) and then cooled in air . This
gives relatively faster cooing and hence enhanced hardness and less ductility.
 Normalizing is less expensive than annealing.
 In normalization variation in properties of different sections of a part is achieved.
 The selection of heat treatment operations is strongly influenced by the carbon content
in the steel.
Surface hardening “Case Hardening”

 Heat treatment methods in general change the properties of entire material.

 Hardening improves wear resistance of material but lowers impact resistance and fatigue
life. Therefore sometimes there is requirement of surface hardening.
 Two methods are used, first is heating and cooing to get required phase, and second is
thermo-chemical treatment.
 Induction heating
 Flame hardening
 High frequency resistance heating
 Laser beam hardening
 Electron beam hardening
 Carburizing
 Nitrating
 Cyaniding
Welding defects
 Definition

The defects in the weld can be defined as

irregularities in the weld metal produced due to
incorrect welding parameters or wrong welding
procedures or wrong combination of filler metal
and parent metal.
Welding appearance
Cracks

Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or base metal or base metal and weld metal
boundary. Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks or radiating/star cracks and cracks
in the weld crater. Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate tensile strength of material. These stresses
are developed due to shrinkage during solidification of weld metal.
Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high sulpher and carbon contents, high arc travel speeds
i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave or convex weld bead and high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.
Cracks
Porosity
Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the
solidifying weld metal. These gases are generated from the
flux or coating constituents of the electrode or shielding
gases used during welding or from absorbed moisture in
the coating. Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the
surface of work pieces or on electrodes are also source of
gases during welding. Porosity may be easily prevented if
work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and
grease. Further, porosity can also be controlled if
excessively high welding currents, faster welding speeds
and long arc lengths are avoided flux and coated
electrodes are properly baked.
Solid Inclusion
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic material
entrapped in the weld metal as these may not able to float on the surface of the
solidifying weld metal. During arc welding flux either in the form of granules
or coating after melting, reacts with the molten weld metal removing oxides and
other impurities in the form of slag and it floats on the surface of weld metal
due to its low density. However, if the molten weld metal has high viscosity or
too low temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may not be released from the
weld pool and may cause inclusion.
Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is selected, all the slag from
the previously deposited bead is removed, too high or too low welding currents
and long arcs are avoided.
 Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration

 Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together

either the base metal and weld metal or
subsequent beads in multi-pass welding
because of failure to raise the temperature of
base metal or previously deposited weld layer
to melting point during welding. Lack of fusion
can be avoided by properly cleaning of surfaces
to be welded, selecting proper current, proper
welding technique and correct size of electrode.

 Incomplete penetration means that the weld

depth is not up to the desired level or root faces
have not reached to melting point in a groove
joint. If either low currents or larger arc lengths
or large root face or small root gap or too
narrow groove angles are used then it results
into poor penetration.
Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration
Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration
Imperfect Shape

Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired

shape and size of the weld bead.
During undercutting a notch is formed either on one
side of the weld bead or both sides in which stresses
tend to concentrate and it can result in the early failure
of the joint. Main reasons for undercutting are the
excessive welding currents, long arc lengths and fast
travel speeds.
Under filling may be due to low currents, fast travel
speeds and small size of electrodes. Overlap may occur
due to low currents, longer arc lengths and slower
welding speeds.
Imperfect Shape
Imperfect Shape
Imperfect Shape
Imperfect Shape

Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents,

low voltages, slow travel speeds and large size
electrodes are used. Excessive root penetration and
sag occur if excessive high currents and slow travel
speeds are used for relatively thinner members.
Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring
due to large heat input during welding.
Imperfect Shape
Miscellaneous Defects
Various miscellaneous defects may be multiple arc strikes i.e. several arc strikes are one behind the other, spatter,
grinding and chipping marks, tack weld defects, oxidized surface in the region of weld, unremoved slag and
misalignment of weld beads if welded from both sides in butt welds.