CHAPTER 2

2.0 Measurement of line parameters

It is essential to successfully measure electrical
quantities and other parameters in terms of
fundamental units, since it determines our
knowledge of that quantity. Line parameters are
basically: resistance, capacitance and
inductance.
Other quantities can be derived from
these Basic Parameters mainly – susceptance,
conductance, admittance, e.t.c. other
fundamental electrical quantities are voltage
and current.

2.1 Measurement of Resistance

Resistance may be defined as low
medium and high depending on its value and
area of application. Generally:
i. Low resistance range: 0 - 1
e.g. Shunts cables, armature windings e.t.c.
ii. Medium Resistance range; 1-105 
e.g. common electrical apparatus
iii. High Resistance: 106  and above
e.g. resistance of insulating materials and the
2.2. Measurement of Low Resistances.
Three methods are used.
i. Ammeter / Voltmeter Method
ii. Potentiometer Method
iii. Kelvin Double Bridge Method

2.21 Ammeter / Voltmeter Method

This measurement is performed by
measuring first the voltage across the
unknown resistance and then the current.
From the ratio v/1 the unknown resistance
can be obtained, however the accuracy of
this method depends on the accuracy of the
instrument used and their relative internal
impedance.
2.22 Potentiometer Method
This can be used to measure low resistance
provided a standard resistance of a
magnitude similar to the unknown and a
stable current supply are available. The
voltage across the unknown resistance, V A
Is first measured and then the voltage across the
known resistance VB is measured. Provided the
current magnitude is identical for both
measurement.
VA = RAI, VB = RBI
Thus: RA = VA – RB
VB
2.23 Kelvin Double Bridge
This method is one of the best available for the
precise measurement of low resistance. It
eliminates the leads resistance error present in
the Wheatstone Bridge
From the figure, x is the lead resistance to be
measured, s is a standard resistance. r is a
low resistance link connecting x and s. Q, q,
M, m are four known non-inductive
resistances. Either M and m, or Q and q are
variable. G is a sensitive detector.
Analysis
For analysis we transform the data
arrangement of resistances q, m and r into a
star connection below
From the transformation,
a = qr
q+m+r
b = qm
q+m+r
c = mr
q+m+r
The transformed bridge
When the bridge is balanced, no current flows
through G. therefore, from the Balanced
equation of a Wheatstone Bridge
Q=x+a
M s+c
X + A = Q (s+c) – a
M
X = Q (s+c) – a ………… (1)
M
Substitute a, c in the above equation (1)
X=Q S+QC–a
M M
=Q S+Q mr - qr
M M q+m+r q+m+r

X = QS + mr . Q – mr . q
M q+m+r M q+m+r m

X = QS + mr Q– q
M q+m+r M m

The term
mr Q–q
q+m+r M m can be made very small by
making the resistance of the link, r very small, and
making the ratio Q as close to q as possible
m m
This can be achieved easily if m = M, q = Q
If this term is made negligibly small, then this
expression holds, i.e. x = Q . S
M
A possible source of error is the generation of
thermo – e.m.f: To eliminate this, a
measurement should also be made with the
direction of the current reversed. The mean
value of these two readings will give a correct
value of x.
Range: 10000 to 100 with an error of 0.1 to
0.01% (accuracy of KDB)

2.3 Medium Resistance

The method used to measure these are
i) Ammeter / voltmeter method
ii) Wheatstone Bridge
Assuming the resistance of the voltmeter (Rv) is
very high compared to the unknown resistance
(R), then:
R = voltmeter reading
ammeter reading
If Rv is not much higher than R, a considerable
error is introduced in the measurement. A
correction can be made as follows.
let: R = Unknown Resistance
Rm = measure value
I = Ammeter Reading or current.
Rv is parallel to R; RvllR
Rm = RRv
R + Rv
RRv = Rm (R+Rv)
RRv – RmR = RmRv
R = RmRv
Rv - Rm
2.3.2 Wheatstone Bridge
This is best method for medium resistance
measurements

Simplified Bridge CCT

M and Q are 2 known fixed resistances, s is a
variable resistance and R, is unknown resistance
G is a sensitive detector S is adjusted until a
balance is obtained, this occurs when no current
flows through G. at balance, voltage at B equals
voltage D.
M .V=R .V
M+Q R+S
M(R+S) = M (P+Q)
R = Q .S
M
Thus, R can be obtained in terms of M, Q and S.
M and Q are called the ratio arms. Wheatstone
bridge are normally constructed with about 4 or 5
coils of ratio arms which range in tens hundreds
and ten thousands
(x1, x 10, x 100, x 1000, x 10,000)
The variable arm are then consists of 4 or 5
decades of resistance coils.
2.3.2.1 Errors in Bridge Arms
The balance is obtained from the equation. The
accuracy measurement which can be obtained
with Wheatstone bridge is determined by the
errors in the value of the bridge arms.
Suppose the arms have small errors
+P, +Q, +S.
So that error in R = +R
R=PxS
Q
R + R = P + P. (S+ S)
Q + Q
Maximum error can be be obtained
Upper Limit
R + R = P + P (S+ S)
Q - Q
(R+ R) (Q - Q) = (P + P)(S + S)
RQ - RQ + QR - RQ
= PS + PS + SP + PS
Neglecting 2nd order quantities
QdR = RQ + PS + SP
Dividing through by RQ or PS
(RQ = PS)
QR = RQ +RS +SP
RQ RQ PS PS
R = Q + S + P
R Q S P
Therefore, in percentages
I R x 100 = + P x 100 + S x 100 + Q x 100 – 2.1
R P S Q
Thus, if all the resistances at the given setting of the
bridge have small errors. The error in the unknown
resistance is the addition of the others in
accordance with equation 2.1
2.4 Measurement of High Resistance
The measurement of high resistance is very prone
to errors, because parallel leakage paths are difficult
to eliminate and the values obtained are affected by
 magnitude of the applied voltage the
temperature of measurement, the humidity. A
high testing voltage is required in this
measurement to prove adequate sensitivity.in
this measurement, the resistance offered to
the flow of current along the surface of
insulating is comparable to the resistance to
be measured. Among high resistance to be
measured, the measurement of insulating
resistance of cables is of practical importance
and will be described here.
The method used for measurement of
insulation resistance are:
i. Modified Wheatstone bridge
ii. Loss of charge method
iii. The meggar tester
Modified Wheatstone bridge
Let,
Applied voltage = Vo
Resistance of leakage path = R
P, Q, r are resistances such that
R>>r>>p>>Q
With the bridge at balance and 1-2 open circuit,
V1 = I, R, V2 =I2P
Now, V1 = V2
… I, R = I2P
Thus R = r ; R=rP
P Q Q
RQ = rP
Now if the arm P is unbalanced by a small amount,
P, then
Thus,
V2 = I2 (P+P)
V12 = I, R – I2 (P+P)
And; I2 = R+r .I
(R+r) + (P+Q+P)
I1 = P+P+Q .I
(R+r) + (P+Q+P)
V12 = (P+P+Q)R .I – (R+r)(P+P) .I
(R+r)+(P+P+Q) (R+r)+(P+P+Q)
= I (PR + RP + RQ-RP-RP-Pr-rP)
(R+r) + (P+P+Q)
= I (RQ – r (P+P)
R+r+P+P+Q)
NOTE: QR = rP
V12 = I.P.r
P+Q+R+r+P
Total resistance of the bridge
(R+r) // (P+P+Q)
RT = (R+r)(P+P+Q)
R+r+P+P+Q
Vo = IRT
I= Vo
R+rXP+P+Q
P+Q+R+r+P
Thus:
V12 = P.r .V(P+Q+R+r+P)
P+Q+R+r+ P (R+r)(P+P+Q)
V12 = VoP.r
PR+RP+RQ+rP+rP+rQ
RQ, rP, rP and rQ are much smaller than PR,
and therefore can be neglected:
V12 = Vo.r.P volts
RP
The applied voltage to the detector connected
between 1 and 2 is proportional to P/P in arm P
This can be used to measure resistances up to
100G
… V12 = rP
Vo RP
R = rVo P
V12 P

Electronic detectors are used to carry out the

measurement of such small quantities (as low as
O.1pA)

2.4.2 Loss of Charge Method

In this method, the insulation resistance to
be measured is connected in parallel with a resistor
and electrostatic capacitor. It is charged to a
certain voltage, and discharge through the resistor.
The terminal voltage is observed over a long period
of time by a stop watch.
let E be the voltage to which the capacitor is
charged initially. R is the resistance to be
measured. The capacitor terminal voltage. V at
any time, t is given by
V = Ee-t/RC
Log V = log E – t / RC
t = log E – log V
RC log E/V
R= t
Clog e E/V
If the resistance R is very high, the time taken for
an appreciate fall in voltage is also large. The
voltage vs time (V vs t) graph will be literally flat
and this could lead to serious error in calculation
and hence R
E
When R is large
t
More accurate results may be obtained by
measuring the change V in the voltage directly.
If this is measured and V = E - V
Then the value of R can be obtained from the
expression;
R= t
C log e E
E- v
This method can be improved upon by
measuring the small voltage drop across R using
high gain electronic measuring instrument. The
instrument may be calibrated to indicate
resistance value directly.

2.4.3 The Meggar Tester

These are portable instruments of high
resistance measurement. The principles are
shown in the figure below.
Principles of Megar Tester (ohmmeter)
E and C in the fig. are 2 coils fixed at right angle
to one another. M is a pivoted magnetic needle to
which a pointer is attached. S indicates our supply
voltage terminals. X is the resistance to be
measured and is connected to coil C. when
current flows through C and E their magnetic on
M, the magnetic field of E tends to turn the needle
in an anti-clockwise direction, while that of C in
the clockwise direction. The balance position of
the needle is such that these 2 turning moments
are equal. If the resistance X is very large ( )
the current in C approaching 0 ( 0) the needle
will be set along the axis of coil E. If on the other
hand X is very small, the turning moments of C
will be much more than that of E and the needle
will set along the axis of C. The intermediate
points  and 0 are obtained by calibration. The
scale is graduated in resistance values unusually
in mega ohm (M). Variation of the above are
found in commercial testers.
2.4.3.1 Meggar Tester for
Cable Insulation Resistance
Measurement
Meggar is provided with three
terminals known as line, earth and
guard terminals. The “line” terminal
is connected to the core of the
cable, the ‘earth’ terminal to a plate
immersed in the water, or the tank
side if suitable and the guard
terminal to the guard wire wound
tightly round the insulation. Rotating
of handle at steady speed then
indicates the value of insulation
resistance of the cable by final
position taken up by the instrument
pointer on its scale.
 2.5 PRINCIPLE OF
WHEATSTONE
BRIDGE
Tests to Locate Cable
Faults
Within a factory, cable lengths
are generally comparatively
short and runs readily
accessible so that faults are
not usually difficult to trace by
sectionalizing the circuits. In
Many cases the fault will be
obvious when the cable run is
examined.
However, with some circuits, and
especially where underground
cables are used, a loop test may
be necessary to locate a short
circuit or an earth fault.
The Murray Loop Test is one
simple method based upon the
Wheatstone bridge principle.
 2.5.1 MURRAY LOOP
TEST
For this test, it is essential to
have one good conductor as a
return lead. Instruments are
made to enable loop test to be
carried out, and figure below
shows the arrangement for the
Murray loop test. (see fig. (a), (b)
and (c))
The good and the faulty
conductors are connected
together at one end and the test
made from the other end. In the
case of the fault to earth (fig (a)),
The battery is in the earth circuit
When the fault is between two
cores (fig. b) one faulty core is
connected to the good core, and
the other faulty core is used as
the return and is in the battery
circuit. In both cases the
Resistance of the fault, being in
the battery circuit, will not affect
the accuracy of the
measurement, although it may
affect the sensitivity.
Balance is obtained by adjusting
the variables known resistance P
and Q. The resistance of the
good conductor plus the
Resistance from far end of the
Fault is R and the resistance
From the test end to the fault is
X. The total resistance of the
Good and faulty cores is
L=R+X
The resistance if not known, can
easily be calculated or measured
from the Wheatstone bridge
Principle (fig. C)
At balance,
P/Q = R/X
Which imply that P + X = R + X
Q X
from which X = LQ in Ω
P+Q
When the resistance X is found
in Ω, this can be converted to
Meters for a particular size of
Conductor being tested and the
position of the fault found.
 2.5.2 VARLEY LOOP
TEST
This is another test for finding a
cable fault which is also based
upon the Wheatstone bridge
Principle. The circuit is shown in
Figure below.
*** diagram****
As with the Murray loop test, the
Loop is formed by connecting
together a good core and the
faulty core of the cable at the
Remote from the test equipment.
Balance is obtained by adjusting
a stamdard variable resistor S
while the ratio arms P and Q
Remain at a definite fixed value.
The test is in two parts, the first
part enabling the resistance of
the whole loop consisting of both
good and faulty cores to be
Found.
Figure (b) and (c) show the
equivalent Wheatstone bridge
diagrams for both parts of the
test which are carried out as
follows:
Test 1: Switch C on position (1).
S is adjusted for balance, the
value being S1. This measures
the total cable resistance of the
Lead and return.
R + X = S1 (P/Q) = L

Test 2: Switch C on to position

(2). S is adjusted for balance, the
value now being S2. Note that in
this part of the test R and X
have been transformed into
different arms of the bridge. This
Fault resistance is in the battery
circuit and will only affect the
Sensitivity of the test but not the
Accuracy.
Thus at balance P/Q = R/X+S2
Where X = R + X – (P/Q) S2
P/Q + 1
But R+X = L Ω from test 1 and
P/Q = ratio arm multiplier = M
Therefore, X = L – MS2 in Ω
M+1
This equation enables the
position of the fault to be to be
found in terms of the cable
Resistance. This can then be
converted into meters from the
test point, as the total length of
Cable or its size is generally known.
 2.5.3 Fall of Potential
Test
Consider a twin cable of length l
metres, with an earth fault x
Metres from the near end P. The
schematic circuit is shown in
figure below with a heavy short-
circuiting strip connected to the
two cores at end Q.
The battery circuit serves to pass
current through the length of
cable between P and the fault.
This current is registered by
ammeter. The voltmeter measures
the potential drop
across the ends of this part of
the cable. The current through
the fault is adjusted be means of
an adjustable resistance to suit
the range of the measurements.
The resistance of the fault itself
plays no part in the test, except
to tend to limit the test current.
Readings of volts and amperes
are taken. Let these readings be
V1 and I1. The apparatus is then
moved to end Q, and the whole
Test repeated with the end P
now short-circuit.
Let these readings be V2 and I2.
Then if L metres is the length of
the faulty core,
X = _LV1I2_____
V2I1 +V1I2

Note: that the resistance of the

Return is not included in the
formula, and thus any wire of
any suitable size and section
may be used for this return.
2.6 Unbalanced Bridges
Bridge ccts may be used in a
balance or unbalanced conditions.
If unbalanced a small change in
one of the bridge arms produces a
large change in the detector
signal, in this way the signal at the
galvanometer or the detector may
be used to indicate the deviation
of an arm from a specified
settings. This is useful in the
measurement of dynamic signal in
which insufficient time is available
to achieve balance conditions.
Also in many strain gauge and
transducer applications, it is
Necessary to measure variations
in the value of resistor. A widely
used means for performing this
task is to make variable resistor
one arm of the bridge instead of
Continually trying to keep the
bridge balance by changing the
value of variable arm. In this
way, the current through the
detector is then monitored, and
this signal is termed the bridge
output
*** Give analysis of one variable
arms and four variable arms as
examples***
2.6.1 SENSITIVITY OF
GALVANOMETER
A galvanometer is use to detect
an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone. Its sensitivity is
governed by:
 Current sensitivity (current per
unit deflection)
 Internal resistance
Consider a bridge circuit under
A small unbalance condition, and
Apply circuit analysis to solve the
current through galvanometer.
 Thevenin Equivalent Bridge
Circuit (to be redrawn in class)

The voltage across the detector is

VAC = E R1 - R2
R1 + R2 R2+R3

The thevenin equivalent of fig. 1 is obtained from

figure 2.
 R1 R2

RTH
fig 2

RTH = R1R4 + R2R3

R1+R4 + R2R3
The current through the detector is
ig = VAC
RTH +Rg
where Rg is the detector
resistance.
A modification of this arrangement
is commonly used in strain gauge
transducers.

Tutorial
The four arms of wheatstone bridge
have the following resistances AB,
100, BC 10, CD 4, DA = 50 . A
Galvano at 20 is connected across BD.
Calculate the current through the
galvanometer when a p.d of 10V is
measured across AC
2.7 A.C Bridges
Alternating current a.c
circuits are similar to the
Wheatstone bridge, but
they are used to measure
inductance and
capacitance, in addition to
resistance.
In fig. 2.3 the impedance are represented by
bridge quantities, Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4. The principle
is to obtain a balanced so that G gives a null
reading when
VAB = VAD
In both magnitude and phase. Since no current
flows through the detector G at balance, then,
I1 Z1 = I2Z2
i.e. I1 = v
z1 + z 3

And I2 = V
Z2+Z4
VZ1 = VZ2
Z1+Z3 Z2+Z4

Zi (Z2+Z4) = Z2 (Z 1 + Z2)
Z1Z2 + Z1Z4 = Z1Z2 + Z2Z3
Z1 = Z 3
Z2 Z4

i.e |Z1| <1 = | Z3|< 3

|Z2|<2 |Z4|< 4
The condition to be satisfied are
|Z1| = |Z3|
|Z2| |Z4|
And 1- 2 = 3 - 4
A solution may be obtained for any bridge by
rearranging these equations and separately
equating the real and imaginary parts.
Example of a. c. bridges are
i) Maxwell bridge
ii) Heaviside
iii) Owen
iv) De sauty
v) Wien
2.7.1 Maxwell Bridge
(Measuring Inductance)

L1 is the self inductance to be measured. R 1 is

the resistance of the inductance R21R3 and R4
are known resistances. C4 is a standard
capacitor Balance is obtained by varying C 4 and
R4 at balance,
Z1 = Z2 or Z1 = Z3
Z3 = Z 4 Z2 Z4
Z1 = R2 + jwL1
Z2 = R 2
Z3 = R 4
Z4 = 1
1

R4+ jwC4
= R4
I+jwR 4C4
R1 + jwL1 = R2 1 + jwc4
R3 R4

= R2 + jwR2C4 R4
Equating real parts
R1 = R2
R3 R4
R1 = R2R3
Note that L = jwL
C=I
jwc j = -1
R=R
Equating imaginary parts
jwL1 = jwR2C4

R3
L1 = R2R3C4
The imaginary factors
Q = wL / R
Q = wL1 = wR2R3C4
R1 = R2R3 / R4
Q = wR4C4
W =2f f=50HZ
W =250
2.7.2 Desauty Bridge (Measuring
Capacitance)

C1 is the capacitance to be measured. C2 is a

standard capacitor.
R1 and R2 are non-inductive resistor at balance,
R1 1 = R2 1
jwC1 jwC2
C1 = R2 C2
R1
The balance is difficult to obtain in this bridge if
the capacitances have dielectric losses.
2.7.3 WIEN BRIDGE

C1 is the capacitance to be measured and it has

a shunt resistance R1. C2 is a standard air
capacitance. R2, R3 and R4 are non-inductive
resistors.
Balance is obtained by varying R2, R3
and R4
at balance
Z1 = Z 3 Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
Z2 Z 4
R3 R2 + 1 = R4 1
jwc2 1
+ jwc1
R1
R1
R2R3 + R3 = R4
jwC2 1 + jwC2

From the above,

R4 . C2
C1 = R3

I + W2R22C22
R1 = R3 (I + W2 R22C22)
W2R2R4C22

NOTE: The heaviside bridges and owen bridges

are used for measuring R and L.

2.7.4 Schering Bridge

This is used for the measurement of
capacitance and dielectric loss, as well as power
factors in high voltage networks.
C1 is the capacitance to be measured C2 is a
standard capacitor. C3 is a variable capacitor.
R2 and R3 are non inductive resistors. R1
represents the dielectric loss of C1.
at balance,
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
Now,
Z1 = R 1 + 1
jwc1
Z2 = 1 Z 3 = R3
jwc2
Z4 = R4

I +jwC4R4
R1 + 1 R4 = R3
JwC1 I+jwR4C4 jwC2
Equating real terms
R1 = C4 . R3
C2
Equating imaginary terms
I = R3
jwC1 jwC2R4
C1 = R4 . C2
The capacitor loss angle is defined as
tan  = WRC
For the circuit above
tan  = WR1C1
= WC4 . R3 . R4 . C2
C2 R3
tan = WC4R4