MODULE 3

 INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS AND
APPLICATION IN
POWER SYSTEMS

 ENERGY METERS AND

METERING
3.0 INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS
Transformer can be used in
electrical instrumentation
systems. Due to transformers
'ability to step up or step down
voltage and current, and the
electrical isolation they
provide, they can serve as a
way of connecting electrical
instrumentation to high
voltage, high current power
systems. Instrument
transformers are used for
measuring voltage and current
in electrical power systems,
and for power system
protection and control.
 Advantages of Instrument
Transformers in Power
System
1.The secondary is wound for low
voltage, which simplifies the
insulation in the measuring
instrument and make it safe to
handle.
2. The instrument transformer isolate
the measuring instrument from the
main circuit.
3. The point in the secondary is
always earthed so that the
secondary circuit and the instrument
are always kept at low potential,
even when measuring high voltage.
4. The measuring instrument can
be connected by long leads to
the transformer and can be
placed in the most convenient
position for reading.
5. The secondary voltage or
current can be standardized
(usually 110V for potential
transformers or 5A for
current transformers), which
simplifies instrument changes
3.1 Voltage or Potential
Transformer (VT or PT)
Voltage transformers (VTs)
also referred to as “Potential
transformers” (PTs), are
designed to have an accurate
known transformation ratio in
both magnitude and phase,
over a range of measuring
circuit impedance. That is PTs
are designed to provide as
accurate a voltage step down
ratio as possible. To aid in the
precise voltage regulation,
loading is kept to a minimum;
the voltmeter is made to have
high input impedance so as
to draw as little current from
the PT as possible.
The potential transformers
are employed for voltages
above 380 V to feed the
potential coils of indicating
and metering instruments
(voltmeters, wattmeter, watt-
hour meters) and relays. In
order word, the low
secondary voltage allows the
protective relay equipment
and measuring instruments
to be operated at a lower
voltages.
The diagram below shows the
connection of the voltmeter
with a potential transformer
From above figure, the
primary winding of the
potential transformer is
connected to the high voltage
main-bus-bars and to the
secondary winding, the
indicating voltmeter is
connected. The voltmeter
reads a precise fraction or
ratio, of the actual system
voltage, its scale set to read
as though it were measuring
the voltage directly.
In this way, the transformer keeps
the instrument voltage at a safe level
and electrically isolates it from the
power system; so there is no
connection between the high voltage
source and the instrument or
instrument wiring.
NOTE:
(i) The ratio of the number of turns in
the secondary coil to the number of
turns in the primary coil of the
transformer is known as turn or
transformation ratio.
(ii) The burden of an instrument
transformer is the value of the
impedance of the secondary circuit
expressed in ohms (or in volt-
ampere at the rated current) at the
relevant power factor.
3.2 Current Transformers
(CTs)
A current transformer (CT) is a
transformer designed to provide
current in its secondary coil
proportional to the current flowing
in its primary coil. These
instrument transformers are
connected in ac power circuits to
feed the current coils of indicating
and metering instruments
( ammeters, watt-meters, watt-
hour meters) and protective
relays. The primary of such a
transformer would be connected
in series with the power circuit
(the circuit in which current is to
be measured) as shown below
Instrument application: the
“current transformer” steps
high current down to a value
applicable to conventional
ammeter.
Note that while the PT is a
step-down device, the
current transformer (or CT) is
a step-up device (with
respect to voltage), which is
what is needed to step down
the power line current.
3.2.1 Precautions to be
taken while using CT
Because current transformers
(CTs) are designed to be
powering ammeters, which are
low-impedance loads, and they
are wound as voltage step-up
transformers, they should
NEVER, EVER be operated with
an open-circuited secondary
winding. FAILURE to heed this
warning will result in the CT
providing extremely high
secondary voltages, dangerous
to equipment and personnel
alike.
Thus, the secondary should be
operated with the ammeter or
the current coil of a wattmeter or
watt-hour meter or a relay in
place or short-circuited.
To facilitate maintenance of
ammeter instrumentation, short-
circuiting switches are often
installed in parallel with the CT’s
secondary winding, to be closed
whenever the ammeter is
removed for service.
The Short-circuit will allow
ammeter to be removed from an
active current transformer
circuit.
3.3 Error in Current or
Potential Transformer
The current transformer (CT)
overcomes the power loss and
circuit isolation problems of the
current shunt, but like potential
transformer (PT), introduces ratio
and phase displacement errors.
The phase angle of the secondary
load on potential transformer will
normally be very small since a
voltmeter is predominantly resistive.
However, should an inductive load
be applied to a PT, the ratio error will
be increased and the phase
displacement, which is normally
negative, may be positive.
The current error (ratio error)
and phase displacement for
a current transformer given
as the difference in
magnitude between the
primary current Ip and the
secondary current multiplied
by rated transformation ratio
(IsKn), is dependent on the
amount of the primary
current used to energise the
core and this must therefore
be kept to a minimum.
The British standard
specification relating to
current transformers defined
current error (ratio error) as

where
Kn is the rated transformation
ratio,
Is is the secondary current and
Ip the primary current.
Also, transformation ratio Kn is
given as

Kn = n +
n = turns ratio

Im = magnetising
component of exciting
current
Ie = loss component of
exciting current
Is = secondary winding
current
 = angle between
secondary winding
Im =

Ie =

Ep = primary induced
voltage
Es = secondary induced
voltage

Phase angle error,  =

Kn in term of no load
current, Io is given by
Kn = n +

where  is the phase

angle at no load current
Io.
ϕs = total impedance
angle of the secondary
winding
Is = secondary current
Measurement of Power
on High Voltage
Power measurements are made
in high voltage circuits by
connecting the wattmeter to the
Circuit through current and
potential transformers. The
primary winding of the CT is
connected in series with the load
and the secondary winding is
connected in series with an
ammeter and the current coil of
a wattmeter.
The primary winding of the
potential transformer is
connected across the supply
lines and a voltmeter, and
the potential coil circuit of
the wattmeter are
connected in parallel with
the secondary winding of
the transformer. One
secondary terminal of
transformer and the casings
are earthed.
3.4 Energy Meter and
Metering

3.4.1 The Dynamometer

Wattmeter
This wattmeter is essentially a
moving-coil instrument in which
the main magnetic field is
produced by two fixed coils. The
moving coil rotates within the
fixed coils, being pivoted
centrally between them, and is
controlled by a spring. The main
field is produced by the current
in the fixed coils and is
proportional to it.
The force rotating the moving
coil is proportional to its
current and the field strength,
which is proportional to the
fixed –coil current. Thus the
deflection is proportional to
the product of the two
currents and if the current in
the moving coil depends
upon the p.d of the circuit the
deflection will be proportional
to V X I = power in watts.
Any change of direction of
current in the circuit affects
both coils, and the direction
of deflection remain unalterd.
Thus, the voltmeter can be
used on both a.c and d.c
circuits. On a.c., the
deflection will be the average
value of the product of
instantaneous values of
current and voltage. This
means that the wattmeter
measures the true or active
power in the circuit, that is,
the deflection is proportional
to Vicosɸ. Figure below
shows the coil arrangement
when using the instrument as
a wattmeter. The moving coil
becomes the voltage or
Potential coil and is
connected across the supply.
A high-resistance R is
connected in series with the
coil in the same way as the
high resistance in a
voltmeter.

3.4.2 The Induction –

Type Energy Meter

The dynamometer wattmeter

is very similar to the
induction energy meter
both in construction and
operation. Like the
electrodynamics'
instruments considered
earlier , it is a moving coil
instrument in which the
main magnetic field is
produced by two fixed
coils.
The induction type energy
meter is made of two
magnetic system.
The top magnet is a 3-
limb construction with a
very small air-gap, making
the coil highly inductive
with a current lagging
almost 900 behind voltage.
The lower two limb
magnet has a large airgap
so that the current and the
voltage are almost in
phase.
Induction Type Energy
Meter
Between the magnets is a
pivoted Aluminum disc. When
a.c is supplied to the two
coils, the potential (upper)
magnet will produce an
alternating flux v which will
produce eddy current in the
disc at a point opposite the
lower magnet poles. As
indicated earlier the
construction of the magnet
makes a phase difference of
about 900 between the
currents in the voltage coils
and the current coils. On a
similar note, a 900 phase shift
will occur between the eddy
produced by the fluxes v and
i. The reaction of these
currents with the fluxes may
produced a flux which will
rotate the disc.
Txi
i.e. T  Iv x Ii x sin
Hence, the torque on the
disc is proportional to the
product of the currents and the
phase displacement. Since the
current in the voltage coil is
proportional to its voltage then,
TVI cos which is the
power in the circuit
If a control spring is attached
to the disc the displacement
becomes a measure of the
power. This is a watt-meter.
However a braking magnet is
used instead of a spring
which makes the disc to
rotate at a speed proportional
to the power in watts.
Since energy is power x time
E = p x t, the no of
revolutions of the disc in a
given period of time is the
measure of the energy.
The disc spindle is attached
through a suitable gear train to
form a revolution counter having
5 or 6 dials or pointers. Instead
of counting revolutions, the
counters are calibrated in watt-
hours or more generally KWH.
Composition magnet
arrangement instead of two
different magnets is equally
possible.
N.B: Also available is the
electrolytic A-h meter for
metering direct current or
rectified a.c in KWh or KVAh just
as the induction type.
3.5 Energy Meters
(a) Measurement of power in
a single – phase cct

In a single -  a.c cct the

product of the ammeter and the
voltmeter readings gives the
apparent power or the volt-
amperes which does not take
power factor to consideration.
Therefore a watt-meter is
absolutely necessary to
indicate the actual power in
watts. For a d.c. circuit the
products of the current and
the voltage gives the d.c.
power in watts.
For the above cct, the
mode of connection of the
wattmeter shown where ML
is the current coil and MT is
the voltage coil. Wattmeter
reading equals actual
power in watts.
 P = VI cos (watts)
But V x A = VI = volt –
ampere
From the instrument readings
it is then possible to evaluate
for the power factor i.e.
cos  = P = P
VI S
Reactive power
Q = VI sin 
Where P2 + Q2 = S2
 3.5.1 Measurement of
power in three-phase
circuit
1. One-wattmeter method.
This method is used to measure
power in a three-phase with a
neutral circuit when the load is
balanced.
In the figure shown below the
Wattmeter indicates the power in
one phase only and since the
Load is balanced
Total power = 3 x wattmeter
Reading. *** Diagram***
If the three-phase is not with
a neutral, the potential coil of
the wattmeter is connected
between lines with a switch
S in circuit so that connection
can be made to both lines in
turn as shown in figure below.
*** Diagram****
The potential across the
wattmeter coil will be 1.73
times the phase voltage and
will have a 30o phase shift. two
readings are taken, first with S
On position (1) then with S on
position (2). The total three-
phase power is the sum of
these two readings.
Total power = P1 + P2
*Solve a similar problem *

2. Two-wattmeter method.
This is the most commonly
used method for measuring
power in a three-phase
system, since it can be used
For both balanced and
The current coil of the wattmeter
carry the current in two lines,
and the potential coils are
connected across to the third
line, as shown in figure below:
The phasor diagram for a
balanced load is also shown.
*** Diagrams****
The current in wattmeter W1 is
IR and the potential is VRY. In
W2 the current is IB and the
potential is VBY The phasor
leads VR by 30o and VBY
lags 30o behind VB. If the
load power factor is cosɸ
Lagging, then the phase-angle
between the current and
voltage in W1 is 30o + ɸ and in
W2 is 30o - ɸ.
Therefore, W1 measures
VRYIRcos(30o+ɸ) = P1
W2 measures VBYIBcos(30o- ɸ) = P1
For balanced conditions
VRY = VBY = V
IR = IB = I
Therefore,
W1 + W2 = 1.73VIcosɸ
This is the equation for power in a
Three-phase circuit. So total
power is given by the sum of the
wattmeter readings. This is also
true if the load is unbalanced and
there is no fourth wire in the
system.