Highway Engineering

Chapter 3
Geometric Design of Highways

Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, Fred L. Mannering, 4 th Ed.

Spring, 1394
Introduction
 The design of highways necessitate the determination
of specific design elements which includes:
 The number of lanes
 Lane width
 Median type and width
 Length of acceleration and deceleration lane for on-and off
ramps
 Grades
 Curve radii
 Stopping and passing sight distances
Introduction
 Many of the design elements influence by
vehicle performance characteristics
 This chapter focuses on the key elements of
highway alignment, which are the most
important components of geometric design.
 AASHTO presented a guideline for
geometric design of highways “A
Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets” also known as
Green Book .
Vertical Curve

 Vertical alignment specifies the elevation of

points along a roadway
 determine to provide the driver safety, comfort
and proper drainage
 Transition of roadway elevations between two
grades, this transition achieved by vertical
curve.

4
Vertical Curve
• Crest Vertical Curve • Sag Vertical Curve

5
 Vertical Curve

Fig. 3.3

6
 Notation

 PVC: Point of Vertical Curvature

 PVI: Point of Vertical Intersection (of initial and final tangents)
 PVT: Point of Vertical Tangency
 G1 is initial roadway (tangent) grade
 G2 is final roadway (tangent) grade
 A is the absolute value of the difference in grades, in percent, A = |G2 – G1|
 L is the length of the vertical curve measured in a horizontal plane

7
 VC Fundamentals
 Thegeneral form of the parabolic
equation, as applied to vertical curves, is
 Parabolic function
▪ y = roadway elevation
▪ x = distance from PVC
▪ a and b defined in next slides
▪ c = elevation of PVC

8
 VC Fundamentals
 First derivative gives slope
dy
 2ax  b
dx
dy
 At PVC, x = 0, so b  G1
dx
 G1 is initial slope (in ft/ft or m/m) as previously defined

9
VC Fundamentals
 Second derivative gives rate of change of slope
(curvature)
2
d y
2
 2a
dx
 However, the average rate of change of slope, by observation, can
also be written as
d 2 y G2  G1 
2

dx L

 Thus,
a
G2  G1 
2L
10
Example 1 Problem 3.2 of the text:
 A 500-ft long equal tangent crest vertical curve
connects tangents that intersect at station 340 + 00
and elevation 1322 ft. The initial grade is +4.0% and
the final grade is 2.5%. Determine the elevation
and stationing of the high point, PVC and PVT.

SOLUTION PVC High Point PVT

Elevation 1312 1318.15 1315.75

Station 337+50 340+58 342+50

11
Example 2:
 An equal-tangent vertical curve is to be constructed
between grades of -2 .0% (initial) and +1 .0% (final).
The PVI is at station 110 + 00 (3 + 352 .800) and at
elevation 420 ft (128.016m). Due to a street crossing
the roadway, the elevation of the roadway at station
112 + 00 (3 + 413 .760) must be at 424.5 ft (129.4m).
Design the curve.

12
Solution: 2
𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥 +𝑏𝑥 +𝑐

𝐿
𝑐=𝐸 𝑙𝑃𝑉𝐶 =𝐸 𝑙 𝑃𝑉𝐼 + 𝐺1 =420+ 𝐿
2
at (2stations after PVI) the elevation
1.5 2
424.5= (2+ 0.5 𝐿) −2 ( 2+0.5 𝐿 ) + ( 420+ 𝐿 )
𝐿
𝐿=13.466
𝐸 𝑙 𝑃𝑉𝐶 =420 + ( 13.466 ) =433.47 𝑓𝑡
13+ 46.6
𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝐶 =110+ 00 − =103+26.7
2
𝐿
𝐸 𝑙 𝑃𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸 𝑙 𝑃𝑉𝐼 + 𝐺2 =420+(1)( 0.5) (13.466 )=426.73 𝑓𝑡
2
13+ 46.6
𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝑇 =110+ 00+ =116+ 73.3
2
Offsets
 Offsetsare vertical distances from initial
tangent to the curve

Fig. 3.4

14
 Offset Formulas
 For an equal tangent parabola,
A 2
Y x
200 L
 Y = offset (in m or ft) at any distance, x, from the PVC
 A and L are as previously defined
 It follows from the figure that,

AL
Ym  offset at the curve midpoint
800
AL
Yf  offset at the end the curve
200 15
 ‘K’ Values
 The rate of change of grade at successive points
on the curve is a constant amount for equal
increments of horizontal distance, and
 Equals the algebraic difference between
intersecting tangent grades divided by the length
of curve, or A/L in percent per ft (m)
 The reciprocal L/A is the horizontal distance
required to effect a 1% change in gradient and is,
therefore, a measure of curvature
 The quantity L/A is termed ‘K’

16
 ‘K’ Values (cont.)
 The K-value can be used directly to compute the
high/low points for crest/sag vertical curves (provided
the high/low point is not at a curve end) by,

 Where x = distance from the PVC to the high/low point

 Additionally, K-values have important applications in

the design of vertical curves, which we will see shortly

17
 Example 3:
 A curve has initial and final grades of +3% and
-4%, respectively, and is 700 ft long . The PVC
is at elevation 100 ft. Graph the vertical curve
elevations and the slope of the curve against the
length of curve. Compute the K-value and use it
to locate the high point of the curve (distance
from the PVC).

18
 𝐺2 − 𝐺1 − 4 − ( −3 )
Solution: 𝑎= = =− 0.5
2𝐿 2( 7 )
𝑏=𝐺1 =3
𝑦 =− 0.5 𝑥 2 +3 𝑥 +100
𝐴=|𝐺1 −𝐺 2|=|3 −(− 4)|=7
𝐿 700
𝐾= = =100 1% change in grade for every 100ft of curve length
𝐴 7
𝑥 h𝑙=𝐾 𝐺1=100 ( 3 )=300
 Example 4:
 A vertical curve crosses a 4-ft (1 .219-m) diameter
pipe at right angles . The pipe is located at station
110 + 85 and its centerline is at elevation 1091.60 ft.
The PVI of the vertical curve is at station 110 + 00
and elevation 1098.4 ft. The vertical curve is equal
tangent, 600 ft long, and connects an initial grade of
+1 .20% and a final grade of -1 .08%. Using offsets,
determine the depth, below the surface of the curve,
of the top of the pipe and determine the station of
the highest point on the curve .
20
Solution:

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝐶 =𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝐼 −3=(110+ 00)−(3 +00)=107+ 00

Pipe is at Station 110+85 means, 385 ft from PVC

𝐸 𝑙 𝑃𝑉𝐶 =𝐸 𝑙 𝑃𝑉𝐼 − 𝐺1
𝐿
2
=1098.4 −1.2 ()
6
2
=1094.8 𝑓𝑡

𝐸 𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 =𝐸 𝑙 𝑃𝑉𝐶 +𝐺1 ( 3.85 𝑆𝑡𝑠 )=1098.4 +1.2 ( 3.85 ) =1099.42 𝑓𝑡
𝐴 2 |1.2− ( −1.08 )| ( 2
𝑌= 𝑥 = 385 ) =2.82 𝑓𝑡
200 𝐿 200 ( 600 )

ft
ft

𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡h𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒=1096.6−1093.6=3 𝑓𝑡

600
𝐾= =263.16
|1.2 −(−1.08)|
𝑥 h𝑙=𝐾 𝐺1=263.16 ( 1.2 )=315.79 𝑓𝑡
SSD and Curve Design

 Itis necessary, when designing vertical

curves, to provide adequate stopping-sight
distance (SSD)

 Because curve construction is expensive, we

want to minimize curve length, subject to
adequate SSD

22
SSD and Curve Design
 SSD formulation was given in Chapter 2, i.e.,
ds = d + dr (Eq. 2.50)
 It is repeated in Chapter 3 as Eq. 3.12

V12
SSD   V1  t r
 a  
2 g     G 
 g  
 Table 3.1 gives SSD values in 5 mi/h (10 km/h)
increments based on this equation and using
AASHTO values of and
23
 Table 3.1 SSD
US Customary Metric

Stopping sight distance Stopping sight distance

Brake Braking Brake Braking
Design
Design speed reaction distance on reaction distance on
speed
(mi/h) distance level Calculated Design distance level Calculated Design
(km/h)
(ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (m) (m) (m) (m)

15 55.1 21.6 76.7 80 20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20

20 73.5 38.4 111.9 115 30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35
25 91.9 60.0 151.9 155 40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50
30 110.3 86.4 196.7 200 50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65
35 128.6 117.6 246.2 250 60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85
40 147.0 153.6 300.6 305 70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105
45 165.4 194.4 359.8 360 80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130
50 183.8 240.0 423.8 425 90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160
55 202.1 290.3 492.4 495 100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185
60 220.5 345.5 566.0 570 110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220
65 238.9 405.5 644.4 645 120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250
70 257.3 470.3 727.6 730 130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285
75 275.6 539.9 815.5 820
80 294.0 614.3 908.3 910
Note: Brake reaction distance is based on a time of 2.5 sec; deceleration rate of
11.2 ft/s2 (3.4 m/s2) is used to determine calculated stopping sight distance.
24
 SSD and Crest VC
 Two different factors are important for crest
curves
 The driver’s eye height in vehicle, H1
 Height of a roadway obstruction object, H2

Fig. 3.6
25
Minimum Curve Length
 By using the properties of a parabola for
an equal tangent curve, it can be shown
that the minimum length of curve, Lm, for a
required SSD is
A  SSD 2
Lm  for SSD  L

200 H 1  H 2 2 Eq. 3.13

Lm  2  SSD 

200 H 1  H 2 
2

for SSD  L Eq. 3.14

A

26
Minimum Curve Length
 Forthe sight distance required to provide
adequate SSD, current AASHTO design
standards use the following specifications:

 H1 (driver’s eye height) = 3.5 ft (1080 mm)

 H2 (object height) = 2.0 ft (600 mm)

27
Minimum Curve Length

 Substituting these values into previous two

equations yields:

A  SSD 2
SSD  L A  SSD 2
Lm  Lm 
2158 658
658
2158 Lm  2  SSD 
Lm  2  SSD  SSD  L A
A
 Since using these equations can be cumbersome, tables
have been developed, utilizing K=L/A (discussed earlier)
28
Example 3.5

 A highway is being designed to AASHTO

guidelines with a 70-mph design speed and,
at one section, an equal tangent vertical
curve must be designed to connect grades
of +1.0% and –2.0%.

Determine the minimum length of vertical

curve necessary to meet SSD requirements.

29
Example 3.5

Eq. 3.15, SSD < L

A  SSD 3  730
2 2
Lm    740.82 ft
2158 2158

740.82 > 730, so assumption about SSD < L is OK

30
K-values Table
 Inthe table of K values assume G=0 for SSD
calculations
 If specific grade needs to be accounted for, SSD
should be computed directly
 On downgrades, for which more stopping
distance is required, more sight distance is
generally available
 On upgrades, for which less sight distance is
available, less stopping distance is required

31
Table 3.2 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on SSD
US Customary Metric
Stopping Rate of vertical Stopping Rate of vertical
Design curvature, Ka Design curvature, Ka
sight sight
speed speed
distance distance
(mi/h) Calculated Design (km/h) Calculated Design
(ft) (m)
15 80 3.0 3 20 20 0.6 1
20 115 6.1 7 30 35 1.9 2
25 155 11.1 12 40 50 3.8 4
30 200 18.5 19 50 65 6.4 7
35 250 29.0 29 60 85 11.0 11
40 305 43.1 44 70 105 16.8 17
45 360 60.1 61 80 130 25.7 26
50 425 83.7 84 90 160 38.9 39
55 495 113.5 114 100 185 52.0 52
60 570 150.6 151 110 220 73.6 74
65 645 192.8 193 120 250 95.0 95
70 730 246.9 247 130 285 123.4 124
75 820 311.6 312
80 910 383.7 384
a
-Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersecting grades
(A). K = L/A 32
 Example 3.6
 Solve Example Problem 3.5 using the K-values in
Table 3.2.

L  KA
 247  3
 741.0

33
 Example 3.7
 If the grade in example 3.5 intersect at station 100+00,
determine the stationing of the PVC, PVT, and curve
high point for the minimum curve length based on SSD
requirements.
Solution:
𝐿=741 𝑓𝑡
7 + 41
𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝐶 =( 100+ 00 ) − =96 +29.5
2
7+ 41
( )
𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝑇 = 100+00 + =103+70.5
2
=247 ft K=247 from table3.2

𝑆 𝑡 𝐻𝑃 =(96 +29.5)+ ( 2+ 47 )=98+76.5

34
SSD and Sag VC
 Since SSD is unrestricted on sag curves during daylight
hours, nighttime conditions govern design

 Thus, the critical concern for sag curves is the

headlight sight distance (i.e., the length of road
illuminated by the vehicle’s headlights),

 The illuminated length is a function of the height of the

headlight above the roadway, H, and the inclined
upward angle of the headlight beam, relative to the
horizontal plane of the car, b
35
Sag Curve (Profile View)

Fig. 3.7

36
Minimum Curve Length

 Like crest curves, we need expressions for

determining the minimum length of sag curve
required for adequate SSD

A  SSD 2
Eq. 3.19 Lm  for SSD  L
200H  SSD tan  

200H  SSD tan  

Eq. 3.20 Lm  2  SSD  for SSD  L
A

37
Minimum Curve Length
 For the sight distance required to provide
adequate SSD, current AASHTO design
standards use the following specifications:
 H (headlight height) = 2.0 ft (600 mm)
  (headlight angle) = 1°

38
 Minimum Curve Length
• Substituting these values into the previous two
equations yields:
U S C u sto m a r y M e t r ic
For S SD < L
A  SSD 2 A  SSD 2
Lm  Lm  ( 3 .2 1 )
400 + 3 .5  SSD 120 + 3 .5  SSD
For S SD > L
400 + 3 .5  SSD 120 + 3 .5  SSD
L m  2  SSD  L m  2  SSD  ( 3 .2 2 )
A A

 If not sure which equation to use, assume

SSD < L first (for either sag or crest curves)
39
 K Values for Adequate SSD
Table 3.3 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves Based on SSD
US Customary Metric
Stopping Rate of vertical Stopping Rate of vertical
Design Design
sight curvature, Ka sight curvature, Ka
speed speed
distance distance
(mi/h) Calculated Design (km/h) Calculated Design
(ft) (m)
15 80 9.4 10 20 20 2.1 3
20 115 16.5 17 30 35 5.1 6
25 155 25.5 26 40 50 8.5 9
30 200 36.4 37 50 65 12.2 13
35 250 49.0 49 60 85 17.3 18
40 305 63.4 64 70 105 22.6 23
45 360 78.1 79 80 130 29.4 30
50 425 95.7 96 90 160 37.6 38
55 495 114.9 115 100 185 44.6 45
60 570 135.7 136 110 220 54.4 55
65 645 156.5 157 120 250 62.8 63
70 730 180.3 181 130 285 72.7 73
75 820 205.6 206
80 910 231.0 231
a
Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in
intersecting grades (A). K = L/A

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,

“A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,” Washington, D.C., 2001.
40
Example Problem 3.8
 An existing tunnel needs to be connected to a newly constructed
bridge with sag and crest vertical curves. The profile view of the
tunnel and bridge is shown in Fig. 3.8. Develop a vertical
alignment to connect the tunnel and bridge by determining the
highest possible common design speed for the sag and crest
(equal tangent) vertical curves needed. Compute the stationing
and elevations of PVC, PVI, and PVT curve points.

41
Solution:
LS LC

YC

YS

𝐿𝑆 + 𝐿𝐶 =1200 𝐾 𝑆 𝐴+𝐾 𝐶 𝐴=1200

𝑌 𝑆 +𝑌 𝐶 =40 𝐾 𝑆 + 𝐾 𝐶 =180
𝐴 𝐿𝑆 𝐴 𝐿𝐶
+ =40
200 200
𝐴=6.6667 %
Example Problem 3.9
 Consider the conditions described in Ex.3.8. Suppose a
design speed of is needed. Determine the length of
curves required to connect the tunnel and bridge while
keeping the connecting grade as small as possible.

43
Solution:

𝐴 𝐿𝑆 𝐴 𝐿𝐶 𝐴 ( 1200 − 𝐿𝑠 − 𝐿𝑐 )
+ + =40
200 200 100
𝐴 𝐾 𝑆 𝐴 𝐾 𝐶 𝐴 ( 1200 − 𝐴𝐾 𝑠 − 𝐴𝐾 𝑐 )
2 2
+ + =40
200 200 100
from table for 30mph
𝐴=3.803 %
Example 3.10:

 Two sections of highway are separated by

1800ft, as shown in figure 3.10. Determine the
curve length required for a 60-mph vertical
alignment to connect these two highway
segments while keeping the connecting grade
as small as possible.
Replace , and , while , for and repectively
Solution: Cont….

𝐺 𝑐𝑜𝑛 =4.4 %

𝐿𝑐 =𝐾 𝑐 𝐴𝑐 =151|3+ 4.4|=1117.40 𝑓𝑡
𝐿𝑠 =𝐾 𝑠 𝐴𝑠 =136|4.4 −1|=462.40 𝑓𝑡
Passing Sight Distance

 Read Section 3.3.5

48
Underpass Sight Distance

 In the case of a sag vertical curve being built

under an overhead structure (such as roadway
or railroad crossing), a driver’s line of sight
may be blocked over the full length of curve.
 The curve have to be long enough to provide a
suitable gradual rate of curvature so that the
overhead structure does not block the line of
sight.

49
S = sight distance in ft (m),
H1 = height of driver’s eye in ft (m),
H2 = height of object in ft (m),
Hc = clearance height of overpass structure above roadway in ft
50
Underpass Sight Distance
 Again, from properties of parabola for equal-tangent curve, we
can derive the following formulas

 For S < L AS 2
Lm 
  H1  H 2  
800 H c   
  2  Eq. 3.27

 For S > L
  H1  H 2  
800 H c   
  2  Eq. 3.28
Lm  2 S 
A
51
 Underpass Sight Distance
 AASHTO design guideline use, and

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑆𝐷< 𝐿 2 𝐴 × 𝑆𝑆 𝐷2
𝐴 × 𝑆𝑆 𝐷 𝐿=
𝐿= 800 ( 𝐻 𝑐 −1.5 )
800 ( 𝐻 𝑐 −5 )

800( 𝐻 𝑐 − 5)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑆𝐷> 𝐿 𝐿=2 × 𝑆𝑆𝐷 −
𝐴
800( 𝐻 𝑐 − 1.5)
𝐿=2 × 𝑆𝑆𝐷 −
𝐴

*Min. Hc is 14.5 (4.4m) ft and 16.5(5m) is desirable according AASHTO guidelines

Example 3.12:

 An equal tangent sag vertical curve has an

initial grade of -4%, a final grade of +3% and
a length of 1270ft. An overhead guide sign is
being placed directly over the PVI of this
curve. At what height above the roadway
should the bottom of this sign be placed?
Solution:

𝐿 1270 Approximately from table 3.3, for K=181,

𝐾= = =181.4
𝐴 |− 4 −3| design speed is 70mph and required SSD=730ft.

2
Since 𝐴 × 𝑆𝑆 𝐷
𝐿=
800 ( 𝐻 𝑐 −5 )
1270 𝐻 𝑐 =8.67 𝑓𝑡

*Although only 8.67ft is needed for SSD requirement, AASHTO

recommends a minimum clearance of 14.5 ft. but desirably at height
of 16.5 ft according AASHTO 2004
Horizontal Alignment

 The critical design feature of horizontal

alignment is the horizontal curve that
transitions the roadway between two straight
(tangent) sections.
 Vehicle cornering capability is thus a key
concern in horizontal curve design
 Figure 3.12 illustrates the forces acting on a
vehicle during cornering.
Rv = radius defined to the vehicle’s traveled path in ft (m),
= angle of incline in degrees,
e= number of vertical ft (m) of rise per 100 ft (m) of horizontal
= side frictional force (centripetal, in lb (N)),
= centripetal force (lateral acceleration mass, in lb (N)),
Vehicle Cornering
 Some basic horizontal curve relationships can be derived by
noting that:
𝑊 𝑝 + 𝐹 𝑓 =𝐹 𝑐𝑝
 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f s W cos   sin    cos 
 gRv  gRv

V2
tan   f s  1  f s tan  
gRv
fs = coefficient of side friction
V2
Rv  for V ≤ 50 mi/h
e for V > 50 mi/h
g( fs  )
100
Example 3.13
 A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70 mi/h. At
one horizontal curve, it is known that the superelevation
is 8.0% and the coefficient of side friction is 0.10.
Determine the minimum radius of curve (measured to the
traveled path) that will provide for safe vehicle operation.
Solution:

V2 (70 *1.467) 2
Rv    1819.40 ft
e
g( fs  ) 32.2(0.10  0.08)
100
Minimum Radius
 Selected value of e is critical because high rates of
superelevation can cause vehicle steering problems on the
horizontal curve, and in cold climates, ice on the roadway
can reduce fs such that vehicles traveling less than the
design speed on an excessively superelevated curve could
slide inward off the curve by gravitational forces.
 Selecting a superelevation, e, a design speed, V, and using
maximum side friction, fs, a minimum radius is obtained.

 Table 3.5 gives AASHTO guidelines for selecting values

of e and fs. (page 76 and 77 of the Text)
 US Customary Metric
Design Limiting Calculated Rounded Design Limiting Calculated Rounded
Speed Maximum e Values of Total Radius, R v Radius, R v Speed Maximum e Values of Total Radius, R v Radius, R v
(mi/h) (%) fs (e /100 + f s ) (ft) (ft) (km/h) (%) fs (e /100 + f s ) (m) (m)
15 4.0 0.175 0.215 70.0 70 20 4.0 0.18 0.22 14.3 15
20 4.0 0.170 0.210 127.4 125 30 4.0 0.17 0.21 33.7 35
25 4.0 0.165 0.205 203.9 205 40 4.0 0.17 0.21 60.0 60
30 4.0 0.160 0.200 301.0 300 50 4.0 0.16 0.20 98.4 100
35 4.0 0.155 0.195 420.2 420 60 4.0 0.15 0.19 149.1 150
40 4.0 0.150 0.190 563.3 565 70 4.0 0.14 0.18 214.2 215
45 4.0 0.145 0.185 732.2 730 80 4.0 0.14 0.18 279.8 280
50 4.0 0.140 0.180 929.0 930 90 4.0 0.13 0.17 375.0 375
55 4.0 0.130 0.170 1190.2 1190 100 4.0 0.12 0.16 491.9 490
60 4.0 0.120 0.160 1505.0 1505
15 6.0 0.175 0.235 64.0 65 20 6.0 0.18 0.24 13.1 15
20 6.0 0.170 0.230 116.3 115 30 6.0 0.17 0.23 30.8 30
25 6.0 0.165 0.225 185.8 185 40 6.0 0.17 0.23 54.7 55
30 6.0 0.160 0.220 273.6 275 50 6.0 0.16 0.22 89.4 90
35 6.0 0.155 0.215 381.1 380 60 6.0 0.15 0.21 134.9 135
40 6.0 0.150 0.210 509.6 510 70 6.0 0.14 0.20 192.8 195
45 6.0 0.145 0.205 660.7 660 80 6.0 0.14 0.20 251.8 250
50 6.0 0.140 0.200 836.1 835 90 6.0 0.13 0.19 335.5 335
55 6.0 0.130 0.190 1065.0 1065 100 6.0 0.12 0.18 437.2 435
60 6.0 0.120 0.180 1337.8 1340 110 6.0 0.11 0.17 560.2 560
65 6.0 0.110 0.170 1662.4 1660 120 6.0 0.09 0.15 755.5 755
70 6.0 0.100 0.160 2048.5 2050 130 6.0 0.08 0.14 950.0 950
75 6.0 0.090 0.150 2508.4 2510
80 6.0 0.080 0.140 3057.8 3060
15 8.0 0.175 0.255 59.0 60 20 8.0 0.18 0.28 12.1 10
20 8.0 0.170 0.250 107.0 105 30 8.0 0.17 0.25 28.3 30
25 8.0 0.185 0.245 170.8 170 40 8.0 0.17 0.25 50.4 50
30 8.0 0.160 0.240 250.8 250 50 8.0 0.16 0.24 82.0 80
35 8.0 0.155 0.235 348.7 350 60 8.0 0.15 0.23 123.2 125
40 8.0 0.150 0.230 465.3 465 70 8.0 0.14 0.22 175.3 175
45 8.0 0.145 0.225 502.0 500 80 8.0 0.14 0.22 228.9 230
50 8.0 0.140 0.220 760.1 760 90 8.0 0.13 0.21 303.6 305
55 8.0 0.130 0.210 963.5 965 100 8.0 0.12 0.20 393.5 395
60 8.0 0.120 0.200 1204.0 1205 110 8.0 0.11 0.19 501.2 500
65 8.0 0.110 0.190 1487.4 1485 120 8.0 0.09 0.17 666.6 665
70 8.0 0.100 0.180 1820.9 1820 130 8.0 0.08 0.18 831.3 830
75 8.0 0.090 0.170 2213.3 2215
80 8.0 0.080 0.160 2675.6 2675
15 10.0 0.175 0.275 54.7 55 20 10.0 0.18 0.28 11.2 10
20 10.0 0.170 0.270 99.1 100 30 10.0 0.17 0.27 26.2 25
25 10.0 0.165 0.265 157.8 160 40 10.0 0.17 0.27 46.6 45
30 10.0 0.160 0.280 231.5 230 50 10.0 0.16 0.26 75.7 75
R= radius, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in ft (m),
= central angle of the curve in degrees,
PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal curve),
PI = point of tangent intersection,
PT = point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal curve),
T= tangent length in ft (m),
M= middle ordinate in ft (m),
E= external distance in ft (m), and
L= length of curve in ft (m).

Degree of Curve:

 180 
100 
 π  18000
D= =
R πR
Horizontal Curve Formulas

T = R tan
2
 1 
E = R  1
 cosΔ 2 

  
M = R1  cos 
 2 


L = R
180
Example 3.14
 A horizontal curve is designed with a 2000-ft radius. The
curve has a tangent length of 400 ft and the PI is at
station 103+00. Determine the stationing of the PT.
Solution:

Δ=22.62°
𝜋 3.1416
𝐿= 𝑅 Δ= ( 2000 ) ( 22.62 )=789.58 𝑓𝑡
180 180

𝑆 𝑇 𝑃𝐶=( 103+ 00 ) − ( 4+ 00 ) =99+ 00

𝑆 𝑇 𝑃𝑇 =𝑆𝑡 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿=( 99+ 00 ) + ( 7 +89.58 )=106 +89.58
Stopping Sight Distance
 Sight distance restrictions on horizontal curves occur
when obstructions (e.g., buildings, rock outcroppings) are
present as shown in the upcoming figure.

 When such an obstruction exists, the stopping-sight

distance is measured along the horizontal curve from the
center of the traveled lane (the assumed location of the
driver’s eyes).
 
SSD  Rv  s  90  SSD 
180 M s  Rv 1  cos 
 R v 

180 SSD R v   Rv  M s 
s  SSD  cos 
1

Rv 90   Rv 
Example 3.15:

 A horizontal curve on a two-way highway is

designed with a 2000-ft radius, 12-ft lanes and
a 60-mph design speed. Determine the
distance that must be cleared from inside edge
of the inside lane to provide a sufficient
stopping sight distance.
Solution:

12
𝑅 𝑣 =𝑅 − =2000 − 6=1994
2
𝑆𝑆𝐷=570 𝑓𝑡 ¿ table 3.1 for 60 mphdesign speed

 90  SSD 
M s  Rv 1  cos 
 R v 

 90  570 
M s  19941  cos   20.33 ft
  (1994) 

20.33 ft must be cleared from the centerline of the inside lane or 14.33 ft
measured from the inside edge of the inside lane
Example 3.16 Combined VC and HC
 A two-lane highway [two 12-ft lanes] has a speed
limit of 50 mi/h and, on one section, has both
horizontal and vertical curves. A recent daytime
crash (driver traveling eastbound and striking a
stationary roadway object) resulted in a fatality and a
lawsuit alleging that the 50-mi/h (80-km/h) posted
speed limit is an unsafe speed for the curves in
question and was a major cause of the
crash .Evaluate and check the roadway design for 50
mph.
Solution:
Check horizontal alignment for superelevation, minimum curve radius and SSD
𝐿=𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝐶= ( 32+ 75 ) − ( 16+ 00 ) =1675 𝑓𝑡
180 180
𝑅= 𝐿= ( 1675 )=1198.65 𝑓𝑡 𝑅 𝑣 =1198.65− 6=1192.65
𝜋Δ 𝜋 ( 80 )

SSD 
R v 
cos 
90 
1

 Rv 
 90 [ (
 Rv  M s ¿ 𝜋 ( 1192.65 ) cos− 1 1192.65 −18 =479.3 ft
1192.65 )]
so, the radius and superelevation are sufficient, SSD> 425 from table 3.1 for 50mph

Check Vertical alignment

𝐿=𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝑇 − 𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉𝐶=( 18+ 80 ) − ( 14 +00 )=480 𝑓𝑡
𝐿 480
𝐾= = =80
𝐴 |4 −(−2)|
K=96 from table 3.3 shows that K value 80 is inadequate for 50 mph design speed.
However, because the crash occurred in daylight and sight distances on sag vertical
curves are governed by nighttime conditions, this design did not contribute to the crash.
 Example 3.17:
 Two highways intersect at right angles but they are grade-separated.
The higher highway runs west-east and is at elevation 124-ft . The
lower highway runs south-north and is at elevation 100 ft . Both
highways are level grade . A single-lane ramp is to be constructed t o
allow northbound traffic to go eastbound . A single horizontal curve,
with a radius of 475-ft, is to be used . Determine the following :
 An appropriate design speed
 The stationing of the PC, PI, and PT, assuming the curve begins at
station 10 + 00
 and the stationing and elevation of all key points along the vertical
alignment (assume the PVI's of the required vertical curves are at
the same stations as the PC and PT of the horizontal curve).
Solution:

Horizontal Curve:
From table 3.5 chose 40mph design speed for 465 ft minimum radius of curve and e=8%

𝜋 3.1416
𝐿= 𝑅 Δ= ( 475 )( 90 )=746.13 𝑓𝑡
180 180
and Length of tangent T=475

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝐼 =( 10+ 00 ) + 475=14+75
𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑇 =( 10+ 00 ) + ( 7 +46.13 )=17 + 46.13

Vertical Curves:
and from table 3.2 and 3.3 respectively for 40 mph design speed

124 − 100
𝐴= ×100=3.22 %
746.13
𝐿𝑠 =64 ( 3.22 )=206.08 𝑓𝑡
𝐿𝑐 =44 ( 3.22 ) =141.68 𝑓𝑡
Solution: Cont...

206.08+141.68
𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑛 =746.13 − =572.25 𝑓𝑡
2

For sag vertical curve

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉 𝐼 =10+ 00
𝑠
𝐸𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝐼 =100 𝑓𝑡
𝑠

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉 𝐶 =8+ 96.96
𝑠
𝐸𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝐶 =100 𝑓𝑡
𝑠

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉 𝑇 =11+03.04
𝑠
𝐸𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝑇 =103.32 𝑓𝑡
𝑠

For crest vertical curve

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉 𝐼 =17 + 46.13
𝑐
𝐸𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝐼 =124.03 𝑓𝑡
𝑐

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉 𝐶 =16+ 75.29
𝑐
𝐸𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝐶 =121.75 𝑓𝑡
𝑐

𝑆 𝑡 𝑃𝑉 𝑇 =18+16.97
𝑐
𝐸𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝑇 =124.03 𝑓𝑡
𝑐