Discourse in

social interactions
Group 4:
Trần Thị Bích Ngọc - 22045034
Bùi Phương Huyền - 22045029
Nguyễn Nguyệt Ngư - 22045035
Phạm Khánh Duyên - 22045020
Doãn Thị Hương - 22045027
WARM UP ACTIVITY
1. “_________________ happens when two words in a text are
semantically related in some way; in other words, they are
related in terms of their meaning.” (Nunan, 1993, p. 28)

1. “___LEXICAL COHESION_____ happens when two words in a

text are semantically related in some way; in other words, they
are related in terms of their meaning.” (Nunan, 1993, p. 28)
2. The cultural pattern of English is _________ while that of
Oriental is __________.

2. The cultural pattern of English is __LINEAR____ while that of

Oriental is __CIRCULAR___.
 3. What does this picture
refer to?

3. SCHEMA

SCHEMATA represent
elaborate networks of
information that people use
to make sense of new
stimuli, events, and
situations. (Shen, 2008)
4. What can be filled in the blank?

TEXTUALITY
5. What have we learnt so far in this course?

Discourse Analysis and Grammar

Discourse, Vocabulary and Background knowledge
Discourse and ______________________

5. What have we learnt so far in this course?

Discourse Analysis and Grammar

Discourse, Vocabulary and Background knowledge
Discourse and Intercultural Communication
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 02
Language users Discourse as spoken
and context interaction
Trần Thị Bích Ngọc Bùi Phương Huyền

03 04 05
What to be analyzed Conversation Related research
in social interaction analysis topics
Nguyễn Nguyệt Ngư Phạm Khánh Duyên Doãn Thị Hương
 01
Language users
and context
Trần Thị Bích Ngọc - 22045034
 Language users and context

01 02 03

Context vs
Language users Roles of
contextualisation
participants in a
discourse
 1. Language users
Language users are not only speakers, writers, listeners or readers, but also
members of social categories, societies or cultures. (Van Dijk, 1997)
- Language users speak in order to be understood and to
communicate ideas
- They do that both as individual persons and as social group
members, in order to inform, persuade or impress others or in order
to accomplish other social acts in social situations, institutions or
social structures.

→ the analysis of discourse as interaction take into account

this - what language users actively do or accomplish as
participants of the talk.

(Van Dijk, 1997)

 Cognition - mind of language users

Language users share a vast repertoire of sociocultural beliefs.

The choice of lexical items, the variation of style or the use of
rhetorical when expressing opinions or ideologies can contribute
to the construction of new beliefs or the modification of existing
ones with their recipients.
Various processes and representations in the memory of language
users play a role in the production as well as in the comprehension
of text and talk.

(Van Dijk, 1997)

 individual cognition of
discourse
- Such processes and
representations are unique.
- This uniqueness explains the
personal variation of
discourse: discourses are
generally different from each
other, even when produced in
similar social situations because
language users make different
uses of the same sociocultural
repertoire of knowledge.
sociocultural cognition of
discourse
- The knowledge language users
have about grammar and discourse
is socially shared, so mutual
understanding is possible.
- With other members of their
group, community or culture, they
share norms, values and rules of
communication.
(Van Dijk, 1997)
Understanding language users build:
+ A representation of the text and context
+ Representations of the events or actions the discourse is about

What we usually remember of text or talk is not so much their exact

words or even their meanings or actions, but rather a mental model - a
schematic representation of our (subjective) beliefs about some events
or situations.
(Van Dijk, 1997)
2. Roles of participants in a discourse

2.1 The structure of discourse identity: production/reception

roles

2.2 The structure of discourse identity: social/interactive roles

(Scollon, 1997)
2.1. The structure of discourse identity: production/reception roles
The ways in which a person can enter into a discourse have been
shown to be extremely complex (Goffman 1974, 1981)
Goffman introduced three 'production format' roles, animator,
author, and principal, which may be analyzed in virtually any act
of communication (Goffman 1981).
Animator: individual active in the role of utterance production
Author: someone who has selected the sentiments that are
expressed and the words in which they are encoded.
Principal: someone whose position is established by the words
spoken, someone whose beliefs have been told, someone who is
committed to what the words say.
2.1. The structure of discourse identity: production/reception roles

Example 1:
A department head might ask John to draft up a letter, which is typed by a
secretary, and signed by the department head as the person who takes
responsibility for the discourse.

John: the author

The secretary: the animator
The department head: the principal
2.1. The structure of discourse identity: production/reception roles

In some situations, one person can play all three roles:

Example 2:
A talks to B: “Can you come over to my place for dinner tomorrow?”

Roles Explanations

the author A is producing the relevant sounds

Match the roles with
suitable explanations the animator A is inviting B to dinner tomorrow, thereby
committing himself to provide B with dinner
if B accepts the invitation
the principal A is composing the utterance
2.1. The structure of discourse identity: production/reception roles

There are situations where one or more of the roles is unfilled

Example 4:
A language learner practices pronouncing words in his textbook.
Example 5:
A linguist makes up example sentences and pronounces them to hear
how they sound like.

 Play the roles of both the author and animator

 No principal
2.1. The structure of discourse identity: production/reception roles

Scollon (1997) argued that a parallel set of receptive roles can be

identified which parallel the three production roles.
2.1. The structure of discourse identity: production/reception roles
(McCAWLEY, 1999)
2.1. The structure of discourse identity: production/reception roles

Example:
When someone publishes an open letter to President Clinton in the
Milwaukee Journal:
Addressee: Clinton
Ratified recipient: readers of the journal
Intended recipient: all Democratic voters in Wisconsin
Recipient in general: those who happen to read the letter

(McCAWLEY, 1999)
2.2. The structure of discourse identity: social/interactive roles

A with as Goffman defines:

A with is a party of more than one whose members are perceived to be
‘together' (p. 19).
The characteristics which he describes are that the with will show ecological
proximity, that is they will stand, sit, or otherwise orient themselves toward
each other within a relatively small space.
A watch is defined as any person or group of people who are perceived to
have attention to some spectacle as the central focus of their (social)
activity (Scollon, 1996).
The concept of discourse identity:
→ increase our awareness of the complexity of the roles we take on
in discourse including production/reception format roles as well as
social-interactive roles
→ increase our awareness of the dangers of drawing overly hasty
inferences about people who are different from each other.

(Scollon, 1996)
 3. Context and contextualization
3.1. Contextualization
Auer (1992: 4) defines contextualization as follows:
"Contextualization comprises all activities by participants which make
relevant, maintain, revise, cancel… any aspect of context which, in turn,
is responsible for the interpretation of an utterance in its particular locus
of occurrence.”
 3. Context and contextualization
3.1. Contextualization
Such an aspect of context may be:
+ the larger activity participants are engage in (the speech genre)
+ the small-scale activity (the “speech act”), the mood (or “key”) in which
this activity is performed
+ the topic and the participants’ roles (speakers, recipients, bystanders,
etc.)
+ the social relationship between participants, the relationship between
a speaker and the information he conveys via language (“modality”)
+ the status of “focused interaction” itself
Auer (1992)
3.2. Context
Context is an understanding of the social world activated in the midst of
things, an understanding of the social world that is interactionally
ratified or undermined from one moment to the next as the
participants in an encounter respond to one another. (Rampton ,2019)

The first property of context to be emphasized is its 'dynamic' character. A

context is not just one possible world-state, but at least a sequence of world-
states. Moreover, these situations do not remain identical in time, but
change. Hence, a context is a COURSE OF EVENTS." (Van Dijk
1977a:191-2)
 3.2. Context
The context of an utterance is a small subpart of the universe of
discourse shared by speaker and hearer, and includes facts about
the topic of the conversation in which the utterance occurs, and also
facts about the situation in which the conversation itself takes place.
(Hurford, Heasley & Smith, 2007, p. 71)

Many factors affect the meaning of an utterance including who are

we talking to, when and where are we uttering it, what religious and
political views do we have, etc… and these factors are known as
context. (Naseri, 2017).
3.3. Types of context

01 02 03 04

Linguistic Situational Social Cultural

context context context context
3.2.1. Linguistic context
Linguistic context refers to what is said or will be said in a discourse.
That is, it refers to preceding and following utterances in a
conversation.
The meaning of the word yes, for example, could be interpreted
differently if it were the answer to the question Are you a student? or the
question Do you teach at this University?
In fact, the linguistic context helps us to understand the meaning of
utterances in relation to the preceding and following utterances in
discourse.
(Naseri, 2017)
 3.2.1. Linguistic context

Yule (2010) has believed that linguistic context clarifies the meaning of
homonym words because the linguistic context or ‘co-text’ of a word
refers to surrounding words or phrases used in that sentence. To
elaborate more on this, consider the following examples:

1. I went to the bank to withdraw some cash.

2. I went to the bank to take a sunbath.

→ The word bank is homonymous and it conveys two different meanings;

in fact, the words used in those sentences help us to differentiate the
meaning of bank.
→ The phrases to withdraw some money and to take a sunbath clarify
the meaning of bank.
3.2.2. Situational context

The situation in which the utterance takes place greatly affects the meaning
of the utterance.
Malinowski (as cited in Widdowson, 2004, p. 38) explained that “meaning is
not only context dependent but context-determined.” The situational context
helps us to refer to entities in the world without mentioning them in the
discourse.

(Naseri, 2017)
3.2.2. Situational context
Halliday suggests that contexts of situation differ in three aspects
determining the range within which meanings are selected (Halliday
1979b:31). The three categories are: field, tenor, and mode.

Field refers to what is happening, what kind of social action is taking place
in which language is an essential component and what purposes language
use is serving.
Tenor, is concerned with who is taking part, with the nature of participants,
their statuses, roles and relationships.
Mode refers to the part language is playing, the organisation of the text,
including the channel, rhetorical mode and genre.
3.2.2 Situational context

Field Subject matter

Tenor Relationship among participants

Mode Genre
3.2.2. Situational context

Example 1: Mode: a compliment

A lecturer tells a student: “What a
punctual student!” when the student
arrives on time in the class. Field: punctuality
Tenor: the lecturer vs the student

Example 2:
A lecturer tells a student: “What a Mode: sarcasm
punctual student!” when the student
arrives at the last minute of a
lecture.
3.2.3. Social context
The social context = the roles involved in a conversation.

Speaker Addressee

relationship

Example: the way a teacher makes a request from his colleagues will be
different from the way he makes the request from his wife.
In fact, the choice of words, sentence structure, and being formal or
informal are determined by the social context.
(Naseri, 2017)
3.2.4. Cultural context
Cultural context refers to the culture, customs and background of
epoch in language communities in which the speakers participate.
Language = a social phenomenon the social structure and value
system of society.
Language can be influenced by all these factors like social role, social
status, sex and age, etc
 Summary

01 02 03

Language Context vs
Roles of
users contextualisation
participants in
a discourse
 References
Auer, P. and A. di Luzio (eds). 1992. The Contextualization of Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Auer, P. (1992). Introduction: John Gumperz’ approach to contextualization. In The contextualization of language (p. 1).
John Benjamins.

Naseri, M. (2017). The role and significance of context and deixis in verbal communication.
McCAWLEY, J. D. (1999). Linguistics and Philosophy, 22(6), 595–619. doi:10.1023/a:1005563915544

Rampton, B. (2019). Interactional sociolinguistics. In The Routledge handbook of linguistic ethnography (pp. 13-27).
Routledge.

Scollon, R. (1997). Discourse identity, social identity, and confusion in intercultural communication.
Intercultural Communication Studies, 6, 1-16.

Van Dijk, T. A (1977a) Text and Context. Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse. Harlow: Longman

Van Dijk, T. A. (Ed.). (1997). Discourse as structure and process (Vol. 1). Sage.
 02
Discourse as
spoken interaction
Bùi Phương Huyền - 22045029
'Speak when you're spoken to!’ the Queen sharply
interrupted her.

'But if everybody obeyed that rule,' said Alice, who

was
always ready for a little argument, 'and if you only
spoke when you were spoken to, and the other
person always waited for you to begin, you see
nobody wouldLewis
ever Carroll:
say anything.
Through the Looking Glass
- Spoken language is a vast subject.
 Little is known in hard statistical terms of the distribution
of different types of speech in people's everyday lives.
-Some different types of speech:
+ telephone calls (business and private)
+ service encounters (shops, ticket offices, etc.)
+ interviews (jobs, journalistic, in official settings)
+ classroom (classes, seminars, lectures, tutorials)
+ rituals (church prayers, sermons, weddings)
+ monologues (speeches, stories, jokes)
…
 Discourse as spoken interaction

01 02 03

Talk and text Hierarchies of Social practices

action and functions
 1. Talk and text

What are differences and similarities among

these pictures?
 1. Text and Talk
TALK TEXT

- Focus on language use as spoken interaction - Be controlled

- Takes place in face-to-face conversations - Be well - prepared
(except phone-call conversations) - Be read with or without
- Be spontaneous spontaneous parts
- Be not controlled and
well - prepared

(Van Dijk, 1997)

 Adjacency pairs
- Pairs of utterances in talk are often mutually dependent.
+ a question predicts an answer
+ an answer presupposes a question
 Adjacency pairs
Look at these extracts from natural data and consider the different functions of
“thank you” in each case. Follow-up moves such as 'not at all’ / 'that’s okay’ / 'you're
welcome’ would not be appropriate here in British English; why not?
 2. Hierarchies of action
Involves accomplishing an action with:

❖ Making assertions,
❖ Making accusations,
❖ Replying questions,
❖ Defending ourselves,
❖ Being polite or
❖ Engaging in strategies of positive self-presentation.

(Van Dijk,1997, p.5)

 2. Hierarchies of action
Example - Making assertions
"I know you've really been busy. I've been busy too, and it's hard for
me to clean the apartment on my own. I'd like for you to make more
time to do part of the cleaning."
→ a recognition of the other person's situation or feelings
→ followed by a statement in which you stand up for your rights.
 2. Hierarchies of action
Example - Being polite
Use a past verb form when we refer to present time, in order to be
more polite or less direct.

A: Where’s the key to the back door?

B: I was hoping you had it. (less direct than “I hope you have it.”)
 2. Hierarchies of action
Example - Strategies of positive self-presentation
"My team and marketing manager helped me create an advertising
campaign for a new product launch. When the company released the
new product, it sold out within two hours of release."
 3. Social practices and functions
- Implies a broader social dimension of discourse
- Indicates the social, cultural and political functions of discourse
within groups or institutions.
(Van Dijk, 1997)
 Example: Mr Pham Binh Minh’s keynote speech in UNGA74

At the same time:

● Presented the Vietnamese
government’s viewpoint on
preventing disputes.
● Called for the respect for
international law, including the
United Nations Convention on the
law of the sea 1982.
=> The complexity of hierarchy of action
3. SOCIAL PRACTICES AND FUNCTIONS
● Implies a broader social
dimension of discourse
● Indicates the social, cultural
and political functions of
discourse within groups or
institutions. (Van Dijk,1997,
p.5)
Example: Mr Pham Binh Minh’s
keynote speech.
=> Indirectly demands China to
stop violating sovereignty,
sovereign rights and jurisdiction of
Vietnam
 Summary

01 02 03

Talk and text Hierarchies of Social practices

action and functions
 References
Van Dijk, T. A (1977a) Text and Context. Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse. Harlow: Longman

Van Dijk, T. A. (Ed.). (1997). Discourse as structure and process (Vol. 1). Sage.
 03
What to be analyzed
in social interaction
Nguyễn Nguyệt Ngư - 22045035
 What to be analyzed in

1. Context
2. Power
3. Ideology
4. Linguistic devices to be analysed
 1. Context

What is context?
“Context is defined as the mentally
represented structure of those properties of
the social situation that are relevant for the
production or comprehension of discourse”
(Duranti and Goodwin 1992; Van Dijk 2008)
1. Context

1.1. Participants
1.2. Settings
 1.1. Participants
Discourse participants consist of producer(s) and interpreter(s)
 1.1.1. Producers

The producers may be the ones who speak or write the text.
However, they are not necessarily the authors of the information.
The third party such as editors, illustrators, designers etc may
also be considered the producers as well.
 1.1.2. Interpreters

Interpreters are the ones who

interpret the target of the text.
In conversation, the roles of
producers and interpreters
exchange in every move.
 Classroom context

Producer

Interpreter

May not be the author

of the knowledge -> Answer the
Preference books questions
 1.2. Settings

Subjective settings Objective settings

Background knowledge Politics

Shared knowledge Culture aspects

Summary 1. CONTEXT

Participants Settings
• Producer(s) • Subjective settings
(Background knowledge,
• Interpreter(s) shared knowledge)
• Objective settings
(Politics, cultural aspects)
 2. Power

2.1. Definition
2.2. Issues of power in
social interaction
 2.1. Definition

Power is the property between groups, classes or other

social formations in which one has power over the other
one. In the other words, the acts and minds of one party
are limited by the other one.
 2.1. Definition

“…is simply the fact that it does not only weigh on us as a

force that says no, but that it traverses and produces things, it
induces pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse.”
(Foucault, 1980)

Power may be the control. Groups may more or less control

other groups, or only control them in specific situations or
social domains.
(Van Dijk, 2008)
 2.2. Issues of power in social interaction

2.2.1. Power IN discourse

● Definition
● Power in cross-cultural encounters
● Hidden power
2.2.2. Power BEHIND discourse
● Standard language
● Power and access to discourse
2.2.3. Power abuse
 2.2.1. Power IN discourse

Definition

“… power in discourse is to do with powerful

participants controlling and constraining the
contributions of non-powerful participants.”

(Fairclough, 2013)
 2.2.1. Power IN discourse

Constraints on:
● contents: on what is said or done;
● relations: the social relations people enter into
in discourse;
● subjects: or the “subject positions” people can
occupy.
 2.2.1. Power IN discourse

Example:
A group of grade 7 students are required to give a short
presentation about “Energy sources” in front of the class.

● contents: presentation about Energy sources

● relations: operate as a presenter (to the audience) and a
student (to the teacher)
● subjects: occupy the subject positions of teacher as well
as student.
 2.2.1. Power IN discourse

Discourse in cross-cultural encounters

Communication breakdown occurs when non-powerful

people have cultural and linguistic backgrounds different
from those of the powerful people.
(Fairclough, 2013)
 2.2.1. Power IN discourse
A job interview for a post in a library with a
Example:
member of an American cultural minority (C2)
Interviewer: What about the library interests you most?
C2: What about the library in terms of the books? or the whole
building?
Interviewer: Any point that you’d like to …
C2: Oh, the children’s books, because I have a child, and the
children … you know there’s so many you know books for them
to read you know, and little things that would interest them would
interest me too.
 2.2.1. Power IN discourse

Hidden power

Hidden power is usually found on mass media because

the nature of the power relations enacted in it is often not
clear.
(Fairclough, 2013)
 2.2.1. Power IN discourse

Example:
1. How is Jenny Keeble represented here?
2. What picture of army officers’ wives do
you get from this extract?
3. What impression of Major Keeble do
you get from the photograph?
4. Do you find yourself having to negotiate
with an ideal subject position built into
the text by its producer? What is that
position?

Daily Mail, 1 June 1982

 2.2.1. Power IN discourse

Hidden power

Power is also sometimes hidden in face-to-face discourse.

(Fairclough, 2013)
1. Type this letter for me by 5 o’clock!
2. Can you type this letter for me by 5 o’clock?
3. Do you think you could type this letter for me by 5 o’clock?
4. Could I possibly ask you to write this letter for me by 5 o’clock?
5. I would like to have this letter in the 5 o’clock post.
 2.2.2. Power BEHIND discourse

The idea of “power behind discourse” is that the whole

social order of discourse is put together and held together
as a hidden effect of power.
(Fairclough, 2013)
 2.2.2. Power BEHIND discourse

Standar language Example: standard British English

Standard English was regarded as correct English, and other

social dialects were stigmatized not only in terms of correctness
but also in terms which indirectly reflected on the lifestyles,
morality and so forth of their speakers, the emergent working
class of capitalist society: they were vulgar, slovenly, low,
barbarous, and so forth.
(Fairclough, 2013)
 2.2.2. Power BEHIND discourse

Power and access to discourse

In order to have power and access to discourse, one may

have “cultural goods” and socially valued “goods”. Both sorts
of goods are unequally distributed, so that the members of the
dominant bloc (the capitalist class, the “middle class”, the
professions) have substantially more of them than members
of the working class - they are richer in cultural capital.
(Fairclough, 2013)
 2.2.2. Power BEHIND discourse

Power and access to discourse

Example:
You can only officiate at a church service if you are a priest, which is itself a
constraint on access.

→ Access to a high level of literacy is a precondition for a

variety of socially valued ‘goods’, including most rewarding
and well-paid jobs.
 2.2.3. Power abuse

Power is about the ability to create meanings and identities and

legitimising the linkage between them (Huchison and Bleiker, 2017).

When speakers legitimise the claims so as to create meaning that elicit

false interpretation, then power is being abused in this sense via the
speakers’ access to discourse and media.
Summary 2. Power
2.1. Definition
2.2. Issues of power in social interaction
2.2.1. Power IN discourse
● Definition
● Power in cross-cultural encounters
● Hidden power
2.2.2. Power BEHIND discourse
● Standard language
● Power and access to discourse
2.2.3. Power abuse
3. Ideology
3.1. Definition
3.2. Social functions of
ideology
3.3. Ideology and
discourse
 3. Ideology
3.1. Definition
● Ideology is set of beliefs and values that are held by an
individual or group of people.
● Ideology shapes people actions, rights, interaction,
language, etc... which in turn shapes the process of society.
(Antoine Destutt de Tacy, in 18th century)
 3. Ideology
3.2. Social functions Of Ideology
Organize and ground the social representations shared by the
members of (ideological) groups.

Be the ultimate basis of the discourses and other social practices of

the members of social groups as group members.

Allow members to organize and coordinate their (joint) actions and

interactions in view of the goals and interests of the group as a whole.

Function as the part of the sociocognitive interface between social structures

(conditions, etc.) of groups / their discourses and other social practices.
 3. Ideology
3.3. Ideology
and discourse Has been defined as foundational beliefs that
underlie the shared social representations of
specific kinds of social groups.
The basis of discourse and other
social practices.

Are largely expressed and acquired by

discourse (spoken or written communicative
interaction).
 3. Ideology
3.3. Ideology
and discourse
Ideology and Discourse
are human thoughts and
communications which
are related each other.

Ideology may change

the discourse.
Summary
3. Ideology

3.1. Definition
3.2. Social functions of ideology
3.3. Ideology and discourse
 4.
Linguistic devices to be
analyzed
 4. Linguistic devices to be analyzed

● ‘Linguistics is a vehicle for verbal expression of thoughts and

feelings’. (Finegan, 2012).
● Linguistic, enhances creativity and the flow of communication.
● It is an instrument of cohesion in the society.

Topic
Schematic organization
Local meanings
Lexicalization
Style
Rhetorical devices
 4. Linguistic devices to be analyzed

Topic: something spoken or written about; a subject.

Schematic organization: topics or macrostructures,

may be organized by conventional schemata.

Local meanings: one aspect belongs to the meaning

of the text.
 4. Linguistic devices to be analyzed

Lexicalization: the process of adding words, set

phrases, or word patterns to a language's lexicon.

Style: the way we use language in different styles

depending on the context of a communicative act
 4. Linguistic devices to be analyzed
Rhetorical devices: A linguistics tool that employs a
particular type of sentence structure, sound, or pattern of
meaning in order to evoke a particular reaction from an
audience.
Rhetorical devices
8. parallelism
1. anaphora
9. personification
2. alliteration
10. pun
3. allusion
11. rhetorical question
4. asyndeton/ polysyndeton
12. sarcasm
5. chiasmus
13. simile
6. hyperbole
14. simple sentence
7. metaphor
15. vernacular
Summary
What to be analyzed in

1. Context
2. Power
3. Ideology
4. Linguistic devices to be analysed
 REFERENCES
1. Duranti, A. & Goodwin, C. (1992). Rethinking Context. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
2. Dijk, T. V. (2008). Discourse and Context - A Sociocognitive
Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Dijk, T. V. (2008). Discourse and Power. Red Globe Press.
4. Finegan, D. (2012). Language: Its Structure and Use. Wadsworth
Cengage Learning
5. Fairclough, N. (2013). Language and Power. Routledge.
6. Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and
Other Writings 1972-1977. New York: Pantheon Books.
7. Mooney, A. & EvanRoutledges, B. (2019). Language, Society &
Power - An introduction..
 04
Conversation
Analysis
Phạm Khánh Duyên - 22045020
 Conversation overview
• Conversation is the spoken exchange of ideas,
observations, opinions, or feelings between
people. (Nordquist, 2019)

• Converation involves exhange of turns

• Conversation is orderly and this order is manifested at all

points by speakers (Sack,1992)
 4.1. Conversation Analysis (CA) overview
• CA is an approach to the study of social interaction and language.

• Ultimate goal: is to discover & describe international rather than linguistic

structures

• Scope: Actual talks between friends, colleagues, strangers, etc. or more

formal setting (classroom, doctor-patient context, courtroom, etc.)

• A key idea in CA: The notion of recipient design - participants in talk

design their talk in such a way as to be understood based on their shared
knowledge (Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson, 1974).
 Conversation Analysis vs. Discourse Analysis

CA DA
CA is a subset, looking at two or Could be an analysis of any text,
more people talking include written texts, lectures,
speech, etc.

Focus on actions in interaction Focus on how we construct

=>the vast majority of work in CA meanings through language
is concerned with talk

Analyzing a dialog between Assessing how language is used

friends => Focus on how they to express viewpoints on special
interact, the strategies they use to topics => Merely focus on
understand each other, how they language, what is in the text
take turns, etc.
Transcription Symbols for CA (Jefferson, 2004)
Transcription Symbols for CA (Jefferson, 2004)
Transcription Symbols for CA (Jefferson, 2004)
? Example

a) What does the mark shift ‘up’ indicate?

b) Practice saying the sentence.
 4.2. Three areas of conversation analysis

• How turns at talk are structured and managed by participants

(Turn taking, Gaps & Overlaps)

• Which turns are organized as sequences, and how basic sequences

can be expanded to produce larger units
(Adjacency Pairs; Preference Organization; Expanding Sequence)

• The repair system which deals with breakdowns in the application of

the machinery (Repair)
 4.2.1. Turn-taking

- Most noticeable features of conversation is that speakers change.

- Only one person speaks at a time and transition from speaker to

speaker occurs fluidly with few gaps and little overlap.

=> Turn-taking occurs in a conversation when one person

listens while the other person speaks. As a conversation
progresses, the listener and speaker roles are exchanged back and
forth (a circle of discussion)
4.2.1. Turn-taking
 4.2.1. Turn-taking

2 main components of turn-taking in CA:

- Turn constructional component
- Turn allocation component.
 4.2.1. Turn-taking

4.2.1.1.The turn constructional component

- Turns are made up of units which is called turn constructional

units
- Turn constructional units (TCU):
+ Normally, they are any grammatical units words, phrases,
clauses and sentences
+ Any linguistic constituent can be TCUs based on the
context.

=> TCUs are context-sensitive

 4.2.1. Turn-taking

4.2.1.1. The turn constructional units

=> sentence as a TCU

=> a word as a TCU

(context-based)
 4.2.1. Turn-taking

4.2.1.1. TCUs as projection

The reciepient can know what it will take to complete the unit of talk currently
under way (The listener can understand what will happen next in the talk of
the speaker)

Carol already knows Joe will say A continue D’s speech - If...then....
“bit him” - said at the same time
 4.2.1. Turn-taking

4.2.1.1. Transition relevance places (TRPs)

TRPs are places at which speaker change could be appropriate.

 4.2.1. Turn-taking
4.2.1.2. The Turn Allocation

- 2 basic ways in which a next speaker can come to have a

turn at talk:

+ The current speaker can select the next speaker

+ A next speaker may self-select.
 4.2.1. Turn-taking
4.2.1.2. The Turn Allocation

* Current speaker can select the next speaker

(address terms: name, pronoun, etc. to choose the next sp
 4.2.1. Turn-taking
4.2.1.2. The Turn Allocation

* Next speaker self-selects

Self-selection occurs when a participant becomes next speaker, but
nothing in the previous talk has selected this person to be next
speaker
 4.2.1. Turn-taking
4.2.1.2. The Turn Allocation

* Next speaker self-selects

In other case, the next speaker is also the prior speaker:
 4.2.1. Turn-taking
4.2.1.3. General rules linking turn construction and turn allocation (Liddicoat, 2007)

(1) At any transition relevance place of an initial turn constructional

unit:
(a) if the turn points directly to a next speaker => the selected
person has the right and obligation to take the next turn to speak
(b) if the turn does not point the next speaker => self-selection
among other speakers to say
(c) if the turn does not point the next speaker => the current
speaker may continue

(2) If the current speaker continues after the initial TCU, these rules apply
again at the next transition relevance place.
 4.2.2. Gaps and Overlaps

- Gaps and overlap in conversation often happen & have meanings

in interaction
- Transition space is the space in which turn-taking can happen. It
begins just before the end of a turn and continues after the
completion of the turn
+ The normal value of the turn space is a beat of silence.
+ A normal turn space indicates that nothing special is
being done in the turn-taking.
Transition spaces can also be longer than normal or shorter than
normal.
 4.2.2. Gaps and Overlaps
Transition space

0.2 second silence is a transition space, neither speakers need to

answer as it already completed the prior action.
 4.2.2. Gaps and Overlaps

Transition space

=> The silence here is attributable to Joy and is interpretable as Joy not
speaking => Harry need to ask again in the next turn.
 4.2.2. Gaps and Overlaps
Reduced transition space

* The next speaker latchs/fastens the current speaker’s talk

 4.2.2. Gaps and Overlaps
Reduced transition space

* Overlapping talk: The transition space may be further reduced

to create a small amount of overlapping talk (interruption) between
the current speaker and the next speaker

* Two main types:

- Unproblematic overlapping
- Problematic overlapping
 4.2.2. Gaps and Overlaps
Reduced transition space

*Unproblematic overlapping:

*Problematic overlapping

=> two speakers self-

select as next speaker
 4.2. 3. Adjacency Pairs and Preference Organization
4.2.3.1. Adjacency Pairs

• consist of two turns

• are created by different speakers
• are placed next to each other in their basic
minimal form
• are ordered
• are categorized into pair types
 4.2. 3. Adjacency Pairs and Preference Organization
4.2.3.2. Preference organization

* 2 concepts: preferred and dispreferred

- A preferred response is acceptance and is usually short, without

hesitation or elaboration
 4.2. 3. Adjacency Pairs and Preference Organization
4.2.3.2. Preference organization

* 2 concepts: preferred and dispreferred

- A dispreferred response is refusal and is usually performed

hesitantly and elaborately
 4.2. 3. Expanding sequences

* Sequence expansion:
- Talk with more than a single adjacency pairs
constructed and understood as performing the same basic action
- The various additional elements are as doing
interactional work related to the basic action
- 3 ways of expanding sequences
+ Pre-expansion
+ Insert expansion
+ Post-expansion
 4.2. 4. Expanding sequences

* Pre-expansion: an adjacency pair that may be understood as

preliminary to the main course of action.

=> ask “what you doin” and

the other say “nothing”
=> invitation with the main
question.
 4.2. 4. Expanding sequences

* Insert expansion: an adjacency pair that comes between the FPP

and SPP of the base adjacency pair, but still relavant to the aim
action.
A: I wanted to order some more paint.
B: Yes, how many tubes would you like,
sir?
A: Um, what's the price with tax? How many adjacency
B: Er, I'll just work that out for you. pair in this dialogue?
A: Thanks.
B: Three nineteen a tube, sir.
A: I'll have five, then.
B: Here you go.
 4.2. 4. Expanding sequences

* Insert expansion: an adjacency pair that comes between the FPP

and SPP of the base adjacency pair, but still relavant to the aim
action.
 4.2. 4. Expanding sequences

* Post-expansion: a turn or an adjacency pair that comes after, but is

still tied to, the base adjacency pair.
 4.2.5. Repair in conversation

* Repair refers to the processes available to speakers through which

they can deal with the problems which arise in talk (Liddicoat,...)

* A model of the mechanism for repair in conversation (4 modes)

- Self-initiated self-repair
- Self-initiated other-repair
- Other-initiated self-repair
- Other-initiated other-repair
 4.2.5. Repair in conversation

* Self-initiated self-repair: the speaker of the repairable item

both indicates a problem in the talk and resolves the problem.
 4.2.5. Repair in conversation

* Self-initiated other-repair: the speaker of the repairable item

indicates a problem in the talk, but the recipient resolves the
problem.
 4.2.5. Repair in conversation

* Other-initiated self-repair: the recipient of the repairable

item indicates a problem in the talk and the speaker resolves the
problem
 4.2.5. Repair in conversation

* Other-initiated other-repair: the recipient of the repairable item

both indicates a problem in the talk and resolves the problem.
Summary of Conversation Analysis

01 02 03
Adjacency pair & Gaps and overlaps
Turn-taking Preference organization

04 05
Expanding sequences Repair in CA
 References

Button, G. and Casey, N. (1984). Generating topic: The use of topic initial elicitors.
Structures of Social Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jefferson, G. (2004). Glossary of transcript symbols with an introduction. John Benjamins
Publishing Company EBooks, 13–31. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.125.02jef
Liddicoat, J. (2007). An Introduction to Conversation Analysis. New York: Continuum.
Nordquist, R. (2019). Conversation Defined. ThoughtCo.
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-conversation-analysis-ca-p2-1689924#
Sacks, H., Schegloff, A. & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematic for the organisation
of turn-taking for conversation. Language, 50, 696-735.
Sacks, H.(1992). Lectures on Conversation. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Schegloff, A., Jefferson, G. & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self-correction in the
organisation of repair in conversation. Language, 53, 361-382.
 05
Related
research topics
Doan Thi Huong - 22045027
 Agenda

I II III
Applications of Related Practicing
discourse research topics analysing a
analysis discourse
 I

APPLICATIONS OF
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
 CONTEXTS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS CAN BE USED TO

analyze the language and framing of political speeches, debates and

1 Politics conversations to understand how politicians construct their message and
persuade voters.

provides a rich source of data for discourse analysts, who can study
2 Social media the way individuals and groups construct identities, participate in political
or social debates, and create and share knowledge.

help understand how news information is communicated,

3 Journalism particularly the language used for narrative construction, source
representation and overall agenda-setting.

examine the language used in textbooks, classroom discussions,

4 Health and teacher-student interactions, provide insights into the ways in which
language constructs knowledge and shapes educational practices.
 CONTEXTS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS CAN BE USED TO

provide insights into how companies construct and

5 Business communicate their identities, and how they attempt to influence
consumer behaviour.

study the language used in literature, provide insights into the

Literature
6 ways in which authors construct characters, themes, and ideologies.

analyze legal texts, such as court decisions and legal

Legal
documents, to understand the ways in which language is used to
7 Discourse
construct, negotiate, and enforce legal principles.

Multilinguali help provide insights into language use and the construction of
8 sm identity, power and interpretation.
 CONTEXTS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS CAN BE USED TO

analysis of conversations, informal discourse and everyday talk can

Social
9 provide insights into how language is used in social interaction to build
Interaction
rapport, construct social relationships and manage social stigma.

analyze the language used in religious texts and sermons to better

Religion understand the construction of religious identity and the role of language in
10
religious practice.

Migration Discourse analysis of migration narratives, diaspora literature or

and transnational communities can help understand how language can be used
11
Diaspora to challenge or reinforce individual, collective and national identities in the
Studies context of migration experiences.

focuses on the study of the cognitive processes involved in language

12 Psychology
use, particularly in relation to the construction of identity and relationships.
 Linguistics DISCOURSE ANALYSIS CAN BE USED TO
13

help students develop an understanding of how language is used in

Pragmatic different social contexts to achieve specific communicative goals. This can
competence help students develop pragmatic competence, the ability to use language in
appropriate and effective ways in different contexts.

uncover linguistic patterns and structures that are relevant to language

Language acquisition. By analyzing texts in terms of grammar, vocabulary, and discourse
acquisition features, students can develop a deeper understanding of how language
works and how it can be used in different contexts.

incorporating discourse analysis into language instruction can help

Cultural students understand the specific cultural contexts and values that shape
awareness and how people use language in different situations. This can help learners
sensitivity develop a greater appreciation for cultural diversity and respect for different
perspectives.
13 Linguistics DISCOURSE ANALYSIS CAN BE USED TO

understand how authors use language to construct meaning and

Critical thinking convey their ideas, students can develop critical thinking skills that
skills enable them to evaluate information and arguments in a more nuanced and
critical way.

examine discourse structures, linguistic features, and communicative

Written and oral
functions of texts can help students develop their own writing and speaking
communication
skills. Specifically, students can learn how to organize their ideas, select
skills
appropriate language, and convey their intended message effectively.

(en.wikipedia.org)
What are the applications of DA?
 APPLICATIONS
Social
Politics Business
interaction
Social
Literature Religion
media
Legal
Journalism Migration
discourse
Education Advertising Psychology

Health Linguistics
Multilingualism
 II

RELATED
RESEARCH
TOPICS
 1. Gender discourse analysis

❏ Ghaffari, S. (2022). Discourses of celebrities on Instagram: digital

femininity, self-representation and hate speech. Critical Discourse
Studies, 19(2), 161-178.

❏ Hellinger, M., & Bußmann, H. (2015). Gender across languages: The

linguistic representation of women and men. Gender across
languages, 1-26.

❏ Flowerdew, J. (2004). The discursive construction of a world-class

city. Discourse & Society, 15(5), 579-605.
 2. Political discourse analysis
❏ Laraña, E., Johnston, H., & Gusfield, J. R. (Eds.). (1994). New social
movements: From ideology to identity. Temple University Press.

❏ Sengul, K. (2019). Critical discourse analysis in political

communication research: a case study of right-wing populist
discourse in Australia. Communication Research and Practice,
5(4), 376-392.

❏ Driver, M. (2013). The lack of power or the power of lack in

leadership as a discursively constructed identity. Organization
Studies, 34(3), 407-422.
3. Health communication discourse analysis
❏ Vermeir, P., Vandijck, D., Degroote, S., Peleman, R., Verhaeghe, R.,
Mortier, E., ... & Vogelaers, D. (2015). Communication in healthcare:
a narrative review of the literature and practical recommendations.
International journal of clinical practice, 69(11), 1257-1267.

❏ Georgopoulos, A. P. (2003). The Way We Think: Conceptual

Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities.

❏ Davis, E. M. (2008). Risky business: Medical discourse, breast

cancer, and narrative. Qualitative Health Research, 18(1), 65-76.
 4. Multimodal discourse analysis
❏ Luke, J. A. (2013). Writing the visible page: a multimodal approach
to graphic devices in literary fiction (Doctoral dissertation,
Queensland University of Technology).

❏ Hallet, W. (2018). Reading multimodal fiction: a methodological

approach. Anglistik: International Journal of English Studies, 29(1),
25-40.

❏ Eisenmann, M., & Meyer, M. (2018). Introduction: Multimodality and

multiliteracies.
 5. Media discourse analysis
❏ De Vreese, C. H., Esser, F., Aalberg, T., Reinemann, C., & Stanyer, J.
(2018). Populism as an expression of political communication
content and style: A new perspective. The international journal of
press/politics, 23(4), 423-438.

❏ Coleman, S., & Ross, K. (2010). The media and the public:" them"
and" us" in media discourse (Vol. 9). John Wiley & Sons.

❏ Coleman, S. (2005). New mediation and direct representation:

reconceptualizing representation in the digital age. New media &
society, 7(2), 177-198.
 6. Linguistics discourse analysis

❏ Loseke, D. R. (2009). Examining emotion as discourse: Emotion

codes and presidential speeches justifying war. The Sociological
Quarterly, 50(3), 497-524.

❏ Knight, D. (2015). E-language: Communication in the digital age.

Corpora and discourse studies: Integrating discourse and corpora,
20-40.
 6. Education discourse analysis
❏ Narvacan, C. I., & Metila, R. A. (2022). Investigating the features of teacher talk in
an online English classroom: A discourse analysis. International Journal of
Research, 11(15), 67-81.

❏ Chen, C. W. Y. (2020). Analyzing online comments: A language-awareness

approach to cultivating digital literacies. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
33(4), 435-454.

❏ Green, J. L., Baker, W. D., Chian, M. M., Vanderhoof, C., Hooper, L., Kelly, G. J., ...
& Kalainoff, M. Z. (2020). Studying the over-time construction of knowledge in
educational settings: A microethnographic discourse analysis approach. Review
of Research in Education, 44(1), 161-194.
 Please recall a research
that impresses you. Why?
 III

PRACTICING
ANALYSING
A DISCOURSE
Emma Watson's "HeForShe" speech
Emma Watson's "HeForShe" speech

❏ What to be analysed
1. Language users
2. Roles of participants
3. Action
4. Context
5. Power
6. Ideology
7. Linguistic devices
 Summary

I II III
Applications of Related Practicing
discourse research topics analysing a
analysis discourse
THANK
YOU