Continuation of the Topic: Introduction to Viscous

Flow

1
 In our last discussion, airflow was assumed to
be steady and regular. However, in a viscous flow,
and particularly in boundary layers, life is not quite
so simple.

There are two basic types of viscous flow:

1. Laminar Flow
2. Turbulent Flow

2
Laminar Flow

Laminar flow, where the streamlines are smooth

and regular and a fluid element moves smoothly
along a streamline.

3
 Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow, where the streamlines break up and fluid

element moves in a random, irregular, and tortuous
fashion.
4
If you observe the smoke
rising from a lit cigarette,
as sketched in Figure 4.32,
You see a first a region of
smooth flow – laminar
flow – and then a
transition to irregular,
mixed-up flow – turbulent
flow.

The differences between

laminar and turbulent flow
are dramatic, and they
have major impact on
aerodynamics. Figure 4.32 Smoke pattern from a
cigarette

5
Velocity profile

Figure 4.29 Velocity profile through a boundary

layer

The velocity profile gives the variation of velocity

in the boundary layer as a function of y.

The velocity starts out at zero at the surface and

increases continuously to its value of at the
outer edge. 6
Velocity Profile of Laminar and Turbulent Flows
For the turbulent velocity profile, from the outer edge
to a point near the surface, the velocity remains
reasonably close to the free stream velocity; it then
rapidly decreases to zero at the surface
V∞ Outer edge of
boundary
layer

turbulent

βturb

Figure 4.33 Velocity Profile

for Turbulent Boundary Layer
Surface of an Object
7
In contrast, The laminar velocity profile gradually
decreases to zero from the outer edge to the
surface.

Outer edge of
V∞
boundary
layer

laminar

βlam

Surface of an Object
Figure 4.33 Velocity Profile
for laminar Boundary Layer
8
 Now, consider the velocity gradient at the wall, which is
reciprocal of the slope of the curves shown in Figure 4.33
evaluated at y = 0. From Figure 4.33, it is clear that:

<

Where is the velocity gradient at the wall

Recalling Eq. (4.89) for leads us to the fundamental and highly

important fact that laminar shear stress is less than turbulent
shear stress.

laminar < turbulent

Where is the shear stress 9
This obviously implies that the skin friction exerted
on an airplane wing or body will depend on
whether the boundary layer on the surface is
laminar or turbulent, with laminar flow yielding the
smaller skin friction drag.

The skin friction on slender shapes, such as wing

cross sections (airfoils), can be reduced by
designing the shape in such a manner to encourage
laminar flow. Figure 4.34 & 4. 35 indicate how this
can be achieved.

10
The standard airfoil shown in
figure 4.34 has a maximum
thickness near the leading 1.0

edge. 0.8

Note that in the standard 0.6

airfoil, the minimum 0.4

pressure occurs near the
0.2
leading edge, and there is a x/c
long stretch of increasing 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

pressure from this point to -0.2

the trailing edge. Turbulent -0.4

boundary layers are
Minimum pressure
encouraged by such
increasing pressure Point of maximum thickness

distributions. NACA 0012

𝑉 ∞

Hence, the standard airfoil is 𝑃∞

generally bathed in long Standard Airfoil

regions of turbulent flow,

Figure 4.34
with the attendant high skin
friction drag

11
 Point of minimum pressure

Point of maximum thickness

Increas
in g press
si ng ur e
Decrea e
r
p r es s u

r flow Turbule
Lamina n t flow

NACA 0012

Standard Airfoil

Figure 4.34a

12
Whereas, the laminar flow 1.0
airfoil has its maximum
thickness near the middle of 0.8

the airfoil. 0.6

Note that for laminar flow

0.4
airfoil, the minimum
pressure occurs near the 0.2

trailing edge, and there is a

long stretch of decreasing 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

x/c
pressure from the leading -
0.2
edge to the point of -
0.4
minimum pressure. Laminar
Minimum pressure
boundary layers are Point of maximum
thickness
encouraged by such
decreasing pressure 𝑉 ∞
NACA 0012

distributions. 𝑃∞

Hence, the laminar flow Laminar flow Airfoil

airfoil is generally bathed in

long regions of laminar flow, Figure 4.35

thus benefiting from the

reduced skin friction drag.
13
 Point of minimum pressure

Point of maximum thickness

pressure
Decreasing Increas
in g press
Laminar flow ur e
Turbule
n t flow

NACA 0012

Laminar flow Airfoil

Figure 4.35a

14
A little bit of history:
The North American P-51 Mustang, designed at
the outset of World War II, was the first
production aircraft to employ a laminar flow
airfoil. However, laminar flow is a sensitive
phenomenon; it readily gets unstable and tries
to change into turbulent flow. For example, the
slightest roughness of the airfoil surface caused
by such real-life effects as protruding rivets,
imperfections in machining, and bug spots can
cause a premature transition to turbulent flow in
advance of design condition.

15
16
 References:
 Anderson Jr, John D., Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill book Corp.
 Anderson J.D. (1985),Introduction to flight, 2nd Ed
New York :Mc Graw-Hill Book Co.
 Clancy,L.J.(1995).Aerodynamics, New York: John
Wiley & Sons

17
To widen your knowledge in this subject, you may
visit the following:
1. Wing Air Flow Demo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLCya5p3LGs
2. Boundary layer separation and stall
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SiOiVHUEYao
3. Science of Golf: Why Golf Balls Have Dimples
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fcjaxC-e8oY
4. Aerodynamics | Pressure profile around airfoil
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rCpZpKZLz14

18
ASSIGNMENT

19
I. Essay

Direction: Answer the following questions based on your own understanding of the
topics discussed in the reading material. Your answers will be graded based on the
rubric for essay found at the end of this assignment. Passing score is 75%.

No copying of answers from your classmates is allowed

1. In not less than three sentences, describe the following:

a) Viscous flow
b) Reynolds number
c) Boundary layer
d) Laminar boundary layer
e) Turbulent boundary layer

2. Why is there no drag created on a body exposed to a non-viscous flow?

3. What is the significance of a Reynolds number in the study of a viscous flow.
4. What are the factors that would encourage the formation of a turbulent
flow on a body, such as aircraft wing.
20
II. Problem Solving.
Direction: Solve the following problems correctly. Write your complete
solutions to yellow paper only. Your answers will be graded based on the
Rubric for Problem Solving found at the end of this assignment. Passing
score is 75%.
No copying of answers from your classmates is allowed.
Your solving these aerodynamic problems must follow the following format:
 Copy the Problem.
 Given:
 Required:
 Solutions:
 Answer:

1. Find the Reynolds number for a wing, 0.0762 m chord, test run at 44.7
m/s with standard air.
2. Find the Reynolds number for an airplane wing 1.524 m chord moving
at 44.7 m/s at an altitude of 8000 m.
3. What would be the air velocity in problem # 1 if the wing chord is
increased to 0.127 m?, keeping Reynolds Number unchanged.
21
 Rubric for Essay Type of Assignment

Criterion Not Acceptable Below Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations

*Response shows some

*Response shows a lack understanding of the *Shows substantial * Shows complete
of understanding for the question (provides 50% of understanding of the understanding of the
question. the number of sentences question. question.
required)

*Uncomfortable with * At ease with subject

*No grasp of information
content. content.

Demonstrated
Knowledge *No clear knowledge of
subject matter *Demonstrates full
knowledge of the subject
with explanations and
*Able to elaborate and elaboration
* Only basic concepts are explain to some degree ( meets or exceeds
demonstrated and ( provides 75% of the maximum number of
interpreted number of sentences sentences required)
*Answers are possibly required)
copied from those of
classmates ( the same
answers in the same
words and sentences have
been found among those
that have been submitted)

Score 25% Score 50% Score 75% Score 100%

22
 Rubric for Problem Solving Type of Assignment

Criterion Not Acceptable Below Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations

*The student did not

understand the
problem, Has written
some appropriate
*The student has
formulas or diagrams,
partially understood the
but nothing further, Or *The student
problem, is not
may have done understands the main
completely lost, but
something entirely concepts and problem-
requires tutoring in *
Demonstrated wrong. solving techniques, but
some of the basic The student clearly unde
Knowledge has some minor yet non- rstands how to solve the
concepts, may have
*Answers are possibly trivial gaps in their problem. Minor mistake
started out correctly, but s and careless errors can
copied from those of reasoning.
gone not finished the appear insofar as they d
classmates ( the same o not indicate a concept
problem.
flow and organization of ual misunderstanding.
solutions are noticed on
those of other
classmates)

Score 25% Score 50% Score 75% Score 100%

23