THEORY OF OBJECT RELATIONS

Mahler (Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975) formulated a theory that

describes the separation–individuation process of the infant from the
maternal figure (primary caregiver). She describes this process as
progressing through three major phases. She further delineates phase
.III, the separation–individuation phase, into four subphases
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Piaget (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) has been called the father of child
psychology. His work concerning cognitive development in children is
based on the premise that human intelligence is an extension of biological
adaptation, or one’s ability to adapt psychologically to the environment.
He believed that human intelligence progresses through a series of stages
that are related to age, demonstrating at each successive stage a higher
level of logical organization than at the previous stages. From his
extensive studies of cognitive development in children, Piaget discovered
four major stages, each of which he believed to be a necessary prerequisite
for the one that follows
 THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg’s (1968) stages of moral development are not

closely tied to specific age groups. Research was
conducted with males ranging in age from 10 to 28
years. Kohlberg believed that each stage is necessary
and basic to the next stage and that all individuals must
progress through each stage sequentially. He defined
three major levels of moral development, each of which
.is further subdivided into two stages each
 Peplau’s Stages of Personality Development
Peplau highlights the importance of psychological tasks in personality
development, which are essential lessons to be learned for achieving maturity. She
identifies four tasks associated with infancy and childhood stages, suggesting that
successful mastery leads to productive use of capacities and healthy relationships,
while failure may result in unresolved issues. In nursing, Peplau connects these
tasks with the nurse-client relationship, viewing nursing as a potential force for
maturation. She suggests that nurses can assist patients in completing these tasks,
offering the opportunity to address unfinished psychological issues from childhood.
Peplau's tasks include stages such as trust, autonomy, initiative, and identity
formation.
 SUMMARY AND KEY POINTS
.Growth and development are unique with each individual and continue throughout the life span ●
Personality is defined as the combination of character, behavioral, temperamental, emotional, and mental ●
.traits that are unique to each specific individual
Sigmund Freud, who has been called the father of psychiatry, believed the basic character has been formed by ●
.the age of 5
Freud’s personality theory can be conceptualized according to structure and dynamics of the personality, ●
.topography of the mind, and stages of personality development
.Freud’s structure of the personality includes the id, ego, and superego ●
Freud classified all mental contents and operations into three categories: the conscious, the preconscious, and ●
.the unconscious
Harry Stack Sullivan, author of the Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry, believed that individual behavior and ●
personality development are the direct result of interpersonal relationships. Major concepts include anxiety,
.satisfaction of needs, interpersonal security, and self-system
.Erik Erikson studied the influence of social processes on the development of the personality ●
Erikson described eight stages of the life cycle from birth to death. He believed that individuals struggled with ●
.developmental “crises,” and that each must be resolved for emotional growth to occur
 Margaret Mahler formulated a theory that describes the separation–individuation process of the infant from the ●
maternal figure (primary caregiver). Stages of development describe the progression of the child from birth to object
.constancy at age 36 months
Jean Piaget has been called the father of child psychology. He believed that human intelligence progresses through a ●
series of stages that are related to age, demonstrating at each successive stage a higher level of logical organization than
.at the previous stages
Lawrence Kohlberg outlined stages of moral development. His stages are not closely tied to specific age groups or the ●
maturational process. He believed that moral stages emerge out of our own thinking and the stimulation of our mental
.processes
Hildegard Peplau provided a framework for “psychodynamic nursing,” the interpersonal involvement of the nurse ●
.with a client in a given nursing situation
.Peplau identified the nursing roles of resource person, counselor, teacher, leader, technical expert, and surrogate ●
Peplau describes four psychological tasks that she associates with the stages of infancy and childhood as identified by ●
.Freud and Sullivan
Peplau believed that nursing is helpful when both the patient and the nurse grow as a result of the learning that occurs ●
in the nursing situation