The Crimean War

The Crimean War (1853 - 1856) was fought between the Russian Empire on one side and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire and later Sardinia-Piedmont on the other. The majority of the conflict took place on the Crimean peninsula, with additional actions occurring in the Caucasus, Northern Balkans, the Baltic Sea region, and in the Russian Far East. The war is generally seen as the first modern conflict introducing some major technical changes which affected the future course of warfare in the rest of the 19th century and in the 20th century.

The original cause of the Crimean War was the competition between the French Empire, proclaimed in 1852 by the nephew of Napolon Bonaparte, crowning himself as Napolon III, and the Russian Empire, over the protectorate of the Holy Land (Palestine with Jerusalem). After its consecutive victories over the declining Ottoman Empire in the 18th century, Russia had obtained the status of a Christian protector power over the Christian subjects of the Sultan on the Holy Land.

The newest treaty signed by the will and insistance of Napolon III between France and the Ottomans, confirmed France and the Catholic Church as the supreme Christian organization in the Holy Land, and gave the French Empire supreme control over the various Christian holy places, and gave the keys of the Church of the Nativity, previously in the hands of the Greek Orthodox Church, to the Catholic Church.

Tsar Nicholas I naming the Ottoman Empire the sick man of Europe dispatched one of his talented diplomats, Prince Menshikov, on a special mission to the Sublime Porte (Bab- Ali) to threaten the weakening empire. By previous Russo-Ottoman treaties, the Sultan had already been committed "to protect the Christian religion and its Churches", but Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new treaty, under which the Russian Empire would be allowed to interfere whenever it judged the Sultan's protection inadequate.

Menshikov also demanded the replacement of some high Ottoman bureaucrats in a clear violation of the Ottoman sovereignty rights. France and Britain, worried about the Russian expansionism in the Near East, clearly showed their supports to the Ottoman Empire by sending war fleets to Istanbul.

With the French and British support, Abdlmecit refused Menshikovs proposals and the Tsar marched his armies into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Russia was acknowledged as a special protector of the Orthodox Church), using the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Places as a pretext. Nicholas I believed that the Great Powers, especially Austria, would not resist to the annexation of the Ottoman Danubian provinces, especially given Russian involvement in helping to suppress the Revolution of 1848 in Hungary.

Nicholas I sent his powerful Black Sea war fleet against the Ottoman navy and destroyed a squadron of the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853. The destruction of the Ottoman fleet alarmed both London and Paris. In 1853, after Russia ignored an Franco-British ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian principalities, Britain and France declared war on the Russian Empire.

Joint French, Ottoman and British expeditionary forces landed on the Crimean peninsula besieging the Russian fortified city of Sebastopol. Later the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, hoping to gain the French support in their future conflict in Northern Italy against the Austrian Empire, joined the conflict and sent also an expeditionary corps to Crimea. Some minor naval and military action also took place on the Russian Pacific coast, the Caucasus, the Baltic and White Seas.

Peace negotiations began in 1856 under Nicholas I's successor, Alexander II after the fall of Sebastopol at the end of highly costful battles. By the Peace Treaty of Paris, the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the littoral of the Black Sea, greatly diminishing the naval threat that Russia posed to the Ottoman Empire. Moreover, all the Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

The Crisis Between Roman and Orthodox Christians

The Roman Catholic Clergy had claimed that the Orthodox Clergy had illegally gained the keys to the Holy Places. Especially the main door to the Church of the Nativity. Located in Bethlehem. And stole the Star of Bethlehem in the process. Napoleon II then pressed the Sultan to respect Roman Catholic Rights in the Holy Land.

The Start

In Oct. 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. Britain tried to maintain the peace. By Nov. the Russians under Adm. Pavel Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope Bay. The Russians then occupied the Principalities again.

The Consequence of the Move into the Principalities

The Russian move convinced the British and French that there was a need for intervention. In March 1854, the Russians refused to evacuate. The British and French followed with a declaration of war.

Nicholas Is Shock

Shocked with the British. As well as with the Austrians. And the Prussians. Both Austria and Prussia refused to be benevolently neutral. Neither wanted to take a stand for Nicholas. Paskevich withdrew. Followed by the Austrians moving into the region.

Warnings from Nicholas Is Inner Circle

The Tsars foreign minister, Nesselrode, warned Nicholas not to press it. Since a threatening stance would or could align the European powers against Russia. In such a situation Russia could lose. Nicholas I pointed to the agreements reached in the Treaties of Kutchuk Kainardji (1774) and Adrianople (1829). Where Russia had the right to protect the Orthodox subjects of the Porte. Or at least that is the way Nicholas interpreted the treatys articles.

Why the Crimean War?

The war came because of inept diplomacy on all sides. The belligerents made moves that were totally inappropriate given the international situation. The newspapers played a role too, at least according to Thomas Carlyle. He felt that the ministers were too fearful to act.

The Peace of Paris (1856)

The Principalities were outside of Russian influence. Russia was denied the right to protect the rights of the Sultans Orthodox subjects. The Russians could not fortify the Aaland Islands in the Baltic. Kars was returned to the Ottomans. The Black Sea was neutralized. Warships could not enter the Dardanelles. Fortifications along the Black Sea was forbidden.

Declaration of Paris

Redefined the rules of war at sea. Especially what was contraband. One concept was that free ships equal free goods. Neutral goods had to be respected. Denied the concept of paper blockades. Made it illegal to issue letters of marques to privateers. Blockades could only be used if properly enforced.

Turkey and Europe

The Turks were now included into the Concert of Europe. The Turks did agree to respect the rights of all the Christian subjects in the Ottoman Empire.

Things Most Frequently Remembered About the Crimean War

The heroic efforts of the English nurse, Florence Nightingale, who organized field hospitals for soldiers stricken with cholera. An Tennysons Charge of the Light Brigade. An order that had the unit attack in the wrong direction against the Russian positions. No belligerent left the conflict the glory that was anticipated.