Lecture-3

Environmental Sciences
The Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the portion of the Earth that contains

water (H2O)
Hydrosphere may include:
► Oceans,
► Atmosphere,
► Land surface, and
► Underground.
►
The Hydrosphere

The hydrologic cycle (or water cycle) refers to the rates of

movements (fluxes) of water among these various reservoirs
( compartments).
The hydrologic cycle functions at all scales, ranging from
local to global.
The Hydrosphere

The hydrological scale at a global scale is more in a state of

equilibrium than the local scale. At the local scale specially
in a lower time frames the streams some times are flooded
but later they dry away.
The Hydrosphere

Artesian Aquifer:
In the geological set the water naturally rise to the surface
without human intervention.
Artesian aquifer is confined within layers of:
impermeable rocks or sediment.
Such water is sandwiched between layers of permeable
rock.
The Hydrosphere

We will consider hydrologic cycle in the context of following

four major compartments.
1. The Oceans proportion of content of water on the planet
is 97.4%.
2. The proportion of surface water occurring on the
landmasses is about 2.3% out of the total proportion of
global water.
The Hydrosphere

The water of land masses is most tied up in the glaciers of

Antarctica and
Greenland.
In addition it is also found along with lakes , rivers, streams
and other surface bodies of liquids.
The Hydrosphere

3.The proportion of the ground water accounts for just 0.32

% of the global water.
Groundwater is found in relatively shallow regions of earth
surface.
Groundwater is accessible either through:
► intake of plant roots or
► laterally through lakes and streams.
Deep ground water may be used by water infiltrating through
deep drainage.
The Hydrosphere

4. The proportion of the atmospheric water is around 0.001%

of the total water.
Atmospheric water is mostly found as gas, vapors or solid
crystals. The liquid or solid water in the atmosphere is in the
form of clouds whereas gaseous water is invisible.
The Hydrosphere

Temperature becomes the reason for the holding capacity of

water. Warmer air in comparison with cooler air has a
greater capacity of water storage .
Humidity (terminology) is used for actual concentration of
water in the atmosphere and is normally measured in (g/m3).
.
The Hydrosphere

Oceans account for 86% of the total evaporation. The rest of the
evaporation is from the terrestrial regions. In terrestrial region
evaporation mostly takes place from:
Surface waters,
Moist soil and
Rocks and vegetation.
Transpiration refers specifically to the evaporation of water from
plants, while evaporation refers to all sources of evaporation from
a landscape.
The Hydrosphere

Precipitation is the deposition of water from the

atmosphere, occurring as liquid rain or as sold snow or hail.
In addition, vapour-phase atmospheric water can condense
or freeze onto surfaces as dew as frost, respectively.
The Hydrosphere

Much of the evaporation from the oceans precipitates back

to them however through moving air masses some of them
are transported to land surfaces.
The Hydrosphere

Orographic precipitation is a phenomenon where

precipitation is normally large in the mountainous region
facing the oceans.
When making comparison between surface water of various
forms, we learn that late water is relatively more static in
comparison with the waters of streams and rivers. This
phenomenon is explained in up coming slides through data
given in tables.
The Hydrosphere

Most of the water evaporated from the oceanic region

transported through air movement to land surfaces is
transported back to the oceans through water flow down
under gravitation thus helping to balance the net import of
moisture evaporated from the oceans.
The Hydrosphere

Groundwater drainage involves the infiltration of water into

the ground.
Shallow ground water can move laterally, eventually draining
into the surface waters. It can be taken up by plant roots to
later be transpired into the atmosphere through foliage.
The Hydrosphere

Deep groundwater is not available for plant uptake rather

it accumulates in the form of underground artesian reservoir.
The Hydrosphere

Water is a ubiquitous solvent. It is used by the natural

ecosystem for the metabolic needs of organisms.
Water is also required for used in:
Agriculture,
Industry, and
Recreation.
The Hydrosphere

Unfortunately in many regions water and its biological

resources (such as fish) have been used excessively, and
water quality has been degraded through pollution.
Hydrosphere

Compartments Quantity (10 14

t) Percent of Total
Oceans 12 300 97.4
Glaciers 286 2.3
Groundwater ( to 0.8 km) 40 0.32
Inland waters 0.25 0.002
atmosphere 0.13 0.001
HYDROSPHERE

Fluxes Quantity (10 14 t/Y)

Evaporation: 4.4
from oceans 3.8
from land surfaces 0.6
Total precipitation 4.4
to oceans 1
to land surfaces 4.4
Atmospheric transfer oceans to land 0.4
Surface runoff from land 0.2
Eutrophication

The process by which body of water, such as lake or river,

becomes overly enriched with nutrients is called as
Eutrophication.
The nutrients despite their benefits some times creates
ecological problems when in excessive quantities. They give
rise to rapid growth of algae and other aquatic plants.
Europhication

Eutrophic waters in general (because of nutrients) are highly

productive.
Oligotrophic water on the contrary found in rivers and lakes
have low nutritional content.
Metrotrophic waters are intermediate between two
extremes od Eutrophic and Oligotrophic water.
Sewage Treatment

The production of livestock manure in Canada is about 181x

10 6 t/y, with a phosphorous content of 0.30 x 10 6 t/y and
nitrogen content of 1.10 x 10 6 t/y .
Sewage Treatment

Not much of the livestock manure is treated before being

released to environment- it is mostly disposed onto fields
into a nearby water body.
The production of human sewage is about 10x 10 9 t/y;
because municipal sewage is flushed away in toilets, it is
much more diluted by water than in livestock manure(animal
dump).
Sewage Treatment

In most places, the principal objectives of sewage treatment

are to reduce inputs of pathogenic microorganisms also
called as pathogens such as bacteria, virus, fungi and other
parasites and oxygen-consuming organic matter to receiving
waters.
To reduce the vulnerability of surface waters, Eutrophication
may be reduced through sewage treatment.
Sewage Treatment

Complex webs of underground sewage pipes makes it

possible to collect sewage effluent from homes, businesses,
institutions, and factories.
Sewage Treatment

Some municipalities have separate systems to collect

domestic and industrial wastes.
Industrial wastes are more toxic.
Storm flows are also treated separately.
Demand and Supply of Essential Nutrients in
Water. These are indexed by typical concentration
in fresh water plants and in fresh water.
Nutrients Plants (%) Water (%) Ratio Plants:
Water
Carbon 45 .012 3,750
Silicon 1.3 .00065 2,000
Nitrogen 0.7 .000023 30,000
Potassium 0.3 .00023 1,300
Phosphorous 0.08 .000001 80,000
Sewage Treatment

Waste water must be treated before discharging it into

aquatic ecosystem ( nearby lakes, oceans, and rivers).
Sewage Treatment

Municipalities especially in coastal regions dump water and

untreated sewage into aquatic environment.
Well-flushed marine environments have a huge capacity for
diluting and biodegrading organic pollutants.
Some cities on the Pacific coast of North America are
involved in this practice.
Sewage Treatment

Coastal habitats have become degraded by the aesthetics,

hygiene-related, and ecological damage associated with the
dumping of untreated sewage.
Although the worst damage is restricted to the vicinity of he
sewage outfalls, it is still an important problem that should
be responsibly addressed by constructing sewage treatment
facilities.
Sewage Treatment

Compared with many oceanic environments, inland waters

such as lakes and rivers have a much smaller capacity for
diluting and biodegrading sewage waste.
Consequently, most municipalities beside an inland water
body treat their sewage before discharging the effluent.
Sewage Treatment can, however, vary greatly in degree and
in the technology used, as we examined below.
Sewage Treatment

Primary Sewage Treatment is relatively simple. It usually

involves the screening of raw sewage to remove larger
materials and then allowing the remainder to settle to
reduce the amount of suspended organic matter.
The resultant effluent is then discharged into the
environment, although it may first be treated with a
disinfectant (usually a chlorine compound) to kill pathogens,
especially bacteria.
Sewage Treatment

Primary treatment typically removes

40-60 % of the suspended solids of raw sewage and
5-15% of the phosphorous,
while reducing the biological oxygen demand (BOD) by
25-40% (BOD is the capacity of the organic material in the
wastewater to consume oxygen during decomposition).
Sewage Treatment

More advanced primary systems can reduce

the suspended solids by 90 % and the
BOD (Biological Oxygen demand) by 50% .
In addition they can reduce fecal coliforms by
45-55%.
Sewage Treatment

- Secondly sewage treatment may be applied to the effluent

of primary treatment, mostly to further reduce the BOD
(Biological Oxygen demand).
- Secondary treatment usually involves the use of
Biotechnology that enhances aerobic decomposition of
organic waste by stimulating the microbial community in
an engineered environment.
Sewage Treatment

More advanced primary systems can reduce the suspended

solids by 90 % and the BOD by 50% . In addition they can
reduce fecal coliforms by 45-55%.
-
Sewage Treatment

- Secondly sewage treatment may be applied to the effluent

of primary treatment, mostly to further reduce the BOD
(Biological oxygen demand). Secondary treatment usually
involves the use of biotechnology that enhances aerobic
decomposition of organic waste by stimulating the microbial
community in an engineered environment.
Sewage Treatment

Two such biotechnologies in common use are (1) activated

sludge , which involves a vigorous aeration of sewage water
to enhance the decomposition of its organic content, and (2)
tricking filters, in which waste water passes slowly through a
complex physical matrix that supports a large population of
microorganisms.
Sewage Treatment

These biotechnologies, along with primary treatment,

produce large quantities of a humus like product known as
sludge , which can be composted and then spread onto
agricultural land as an organic-rich conditioner.
Primary and secondary treatments together remove 30-50%
of the phosphorous from sewage, and reduce the BOD and
suspended solids by 85-90% and coliforms by 90-99%.
Sewage Treatment

Tertiary sewage treatment includes processes to remove

most of the remaining dissolved nutrients from the effluent.
Phosphorous removal may be achieved by adding aluminum,
iron, calcium, or other chemicals that develop insoluble
precipitates with phosphate, which then settle out of water,
removing 90% or more of the phosphorous.
Other tertiary processes may be used to remove ammonium
and nitrate.
Sewage Treatment

Tertiary treatment to reduce phosphorous in municipal

effluents require expensive investments in technology and
operating costs. Consequently, this practice is pursued only
under certain conditions. Tertiary treatments is mostly used
by communities located beside rivers and around the Great
Lakes.
Sewage Treatment

In addition agricultural live stock produce enormous amounts

of fecal materials. However, their manure(animal dung for
fertilizing land) is rarely treated before it is disposed into
the environment.
Treatment facilities for agricultural sewage are considered
too expensive and are not often required by regulators.
Sewage Treatment

Some intensive rearing facilities such as:

Agro-industrial feedlots and
Factory arms,
may produce huge amounts of concentrated manure,
equivalent to the sewage of a small city.
Changes in the Fishery

Lake Erie has long supported a large fishery, which typically

exceeds the combined landings of all the other Great Lakes.
Remarkably, the total catch by the commercial fishery has
been quite stable over the years.
Changes in the Fishery

This has occurred despite enormous changes in the following:

Species of fish present,
Fishing technology,
Intensity of eutrophication,
Pollution by toxic chemicals,
Change in Habitat (by making dams on rivers)
Soil erosion from deforested areas resulting in Sedimentation
of shallow habitat .
Changes in the Fishery

Due to severe degradation of fishery resources, the nature of

fish community has changed greatly.
These changes Illustrate a severe degradation of the fishery
resource and the natural ecosystem.
Changes in the Fishery

In the context of catch of the fishery, the most desirable

species are extracted whereas the less desirable is left .
This has led to the depletion of the most desirable species .
This happened because the fishing pressure was excessive
and could not be sustained.
Changes in the Fishery

Severe habitat degradation occurred in the lake due to the

extensive deforestation of its watershed.
Changes in the Fishery

Recent changes in Environmental Quality:

The construction of sewage treatments have improved
ecological conditions markedly.
Changes in the Fishery

Many of these facilities include technology to reduce the

phosphorous inputs.
The annual loading of phosphorous to lake Erie has been
reduced from about 28-thousand tonnes in 1968 to 20
thousand tonnes in 1974, and 6-17 thousand tonnes during
1981-2008 (average 9-thousand tonnes).
Changes in the Fishery

In comparison with 1960, where phosphorous loading was

from discharge of sewages from towns and cities (point
sources), nowadays it is largely from non-point discharges
associated with agricultural runoff.
The reduction of phosphorus input has reduced
eutrophication in Lake Eric.
Changes in the Fishery

Since 1972, the population of relatively large fishes have

increased greatly, particularly walleye and introduced Pacific
salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.).
These are fish-eating species, and their predation has
decreased the abundance of smaller, zooplankton-eating fish
such as smelt, alewife etc.,.
The decrease of planktivorous fishes has allowed secondary
increases of larger-bodied zooplankton, such as the waterflea
Daphnia pulicaria.
Changes in the Fishery

The zebra mussel is another cause of important

ecological change. This bivalve mollusk, a native of
Eurasia, was accidentally introduced in the Great
Lake by discharge of ballast water from
Transoceanic ships.
Changes in the Fishery

The mussel can rapidly attain an extremely dense

population (up to 50-thousand/ m2) on hard underwater
surfaces such as rock, metal, and concrete.
Consequently, they may be responsible for some of the
recent clarification of Lake Erie and eutrophic parts of other
Great Lakes.
Changes in the Fishery

In addition, there dense population have benefited some

species of ducks that winter on lakes and feed on benthic
molluscs and other invertebrates.
The invasion of the molluscs have also caused damages.
Changes in the Fishery

Some of the damages are as under:

1. Their presence has resulted in displacements of native
molluscs which were not able to compete with them.
2. Industries and water utilities have also suffered damage
from the clogging of their water-intake pipes.
Changes in the Fishery

Lake Eric is an important example of the cumulative , detrimental

effects of a variety of anthropogenic stressors on the ecological
health of a large lake. The stressors that have degraded Lake Eric
include:
- Eutrophication caused by nutrient loading
- Habitat damage through siltation resulting from the
deforestation of the watershed
- Over-exploitation of potentially renewable fishery
- Pollution by oxygen- consuming sewage and toxic chemicals.
- Introduction of alien species.
Dams and Impoundments

A dam is structure that is used to contain flowing water,

which backs up to form a lake-like impoundment.
BEST OF LUCK