Comerț intern și internațional

Prof. univ. Dr. ec. Dr. ing. hab. Silviu Beciu

  The action of buying and selling goods and
services.

Trade
  Trade is a basic economic concept involving
the buying and selling of goods and services,
with compensation paid by a buyer to a seller,
or the exchange of goods or services between
Trade definition parties.
 Trade can take place within an economy
between producers and consumers.
  International trade is the exchange of goods and
services between countries

International  International trade allows countries to expand markets

for both goods and services that otherwise may not
Trade have been available.
 As a result of international trade, the market contains
greater competition and therefore, more competitive
prices, which brings a cheaper product home to the
consumer.
  Between January 2002 and January 2020
exports of goods increased from EUR 121
billion to EUR 256 billion.

Intra-EU trade
Internal trade  Internal trade refers to buying and selling of goods
and services within the boundaries of a nation.
 Internal trade can be defined as trade which takes
place within a country
 Examples of internal trade: buying from
neighbourhood shops, central market, mall, door to
door salesperson, exhibition
Internal trade
 Internal trade can be classified in:
wholesale trade and retail trade.
Wholesale
trade  Wholesale trade is a form of trade in which
goods are purchased and stored in large
quantities and sold, in batches of a designated
quantity, to resellers, professional users or
groups, but not to final consumers.
Retail trade  Purchase and sale of goods in
relatively small quantities, generally to
the ultimate consumers
Internal trade
Internal trade
Intra-EU trade
Intra-EU trade
  Ancient
 Classical
 Medieval
Trade history  Early modern
 Later modern
 Post World War II
 Trade history
(Ancient trade)
 The domestication of the horse around 4800
BCE, allowed 1000 years after, long
distance travel across the Central
Asian steppes.
 Trade history
(Ancient Trade)
• Egyptians built ships as early as 3000 BCE by
lashing planks of wood together and stuffing the
gaps with reeds, and started to trade in the
Mediterranean grain, gold, papyrus
  The Maritime Jade Road was established in 2000 BCE,
after the jade production in China reached its peak.
During this period, the knowledge of jade craftsmanship

Trade history spread across the sea to Taiwan and Philippines and later
expanded throughout Southeast Asia, lasting 3000 years.
(Ancient trade)
 • The domestication of Dromedary camels around
2,000 BCE allowed Arabian nomads to control
long distance trade in spices and silk from the
Far East.

Trade history
(Ancient Trade)
  Barter
 Trade routes:
-Incence routes
Trade history -Silk road
-Spice routes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7xp1-VvtZ0
 1800 B.C. Incence routes
Southern part of Arabia Saudita: Yemen –
Hadramout area, Oman (Boswellia sacra)
Other spices:
India – black pepper (piper nigrum)
Malabar Coast – caraway (carum carvy)

Incente route
(Drumul
tămâii)
 • Assyrian (ancient Mesopotamian civilisation)
merchant colony established at Kanesh in
Cappadocia in the 19 century BCE

Trade history
(Ancient Trade)
 The Silk Road was a network of ancient trade
routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty
of China in 130 BCE, which linked the regions of the
ancient world in commerce between:
130 BCE - 1453 CE (when the Ottoman Empire
boycotted trade with China)
Silk road
(Drumul
matăsii)
  From West to East these goods  From East to West the goods included:
included:
• Silk
• Horses, Saddles and Riding Tack
• Tea
• The grapevine and grapes
• Dyes
• Dogs and other animals both exotic
• Precious Stones
and domestic
• China (plates, bowls, cups, vases)
• Animal furs and skins
• Porcelain
Silk road • Honey
• Spices (such as cinnamon and ginger)
(Drumul matăsii) •
• Fruits

Glassware
• Bronze and gold artifacts
• Medicine
• Woolen blankets, rugs, carpets
• Perfumes
• Textiles (such as curtains)
• Ivory
• Gold and Silver
• Rice
• Camels
• Paper
• Slaves
• Gunpowder
• Weapons and Armor
 The Spice Routes, also known as Maritime Silk Roads, is the name
given to the network of sea routes that link the East with the West.

They stretch from the west coast of Japan, through the islands of
Indonesia, around India to the lands of the Middle East - and from
there, across the Mediterranean to Europe.

Spice route
(Ruta
condimentelor)
 The Olmec (c 1200-400 BCE) developed a culture
with a polytheistic pantheon, monumental
architecture, and artisanal goods which was spread
across Mesoamerica partly by long distance trade for
obsidian, jade, and luxury feathers

Trade history
(Ancient Trade)
 • The Chavín (c 900-250 BCE) of the northern coast of Peru
and Tiwanaku (c 550-1000 CE) in the Andes were able to
build large cities and temples out of stone after growing
wealthy from trade networks using llama trains.
• Trade across the Andes was able to transport maize, llama
Trade history wool, and coca from the regions they were produced
(Ancient Trade)
  China was the first country to use recognizable coins (1100
BC), but the first minted coins were created in Greek island of
Aegina (700 BC) and Lydia (now western Turkey, in 600 BC).
 Prices have emerged with coins.

Big step in the

development of
trade:
the coins
  Regarding the factors that determine the value, in the
history of economics were developed several theories:
 the theory of labour value
Factors that
 theory of marginal utility
determine the
 objective theory
value
 subjective theory
  All commodities, as values are realized
by human labour.
 The amount of labour used to produce a
good is proportional with its value.
Karl Marx
(1818-1883)  Ex: An haircut involves half of hour of
labour, at £ 40 per hour, the haircut has
£ 20 of value. If it also needs the use of
scissors and brushes that cost a total of
£ 60, and lose £ 1 of their value on each
haircut, the total value of haircut is £
21.
  If sandcastles are made by labour why don`t they have any value?
 How can an artistic masterpiece be valued from the amount of
labour used to make it?
 How do vintage wines stored for 10 years increase in value
without any additional labour input?
Karl Marx
  Marginal utility is the additional satisfaction a consumer gains
from consuming one more unit of a good or service.
 Marginal utility is used to determine how much of an item a
consumer will buy.
The theory of
marginal
utility
  Positive marginal utility is when the consumption of
an additional item increases the total utility.
 Negative marginal utility is when the consumption of
an additional item decreases the total utility.
The theory of
marginal
utility
 The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as a person
increases consumption of a product while keeping consumption of
other products constant, there is a decline in the marginal
utility that person derives from consuming each additional unit of
The low of that product.

diminishing
marginal utility
 The objective theory of value is a theory of value which advances the
idea that the value of a good is determined by the inherent property of
the good (the value of an object, good or service, is intrinsic or
contained in the item itself)

Objective
(INTRINSIC)
theory of value
 The subjective theory of value is a theory of value which advances the
idea that the value of a good is not determined by any inherent property
of the good, nor by the amount of labour necessary to produce the good,
but instead value is determined by the importance an acting individual
places on a good for the achievement of his desired ends.
Subjective
theory of
value
 • Was marked by the development of Silk Road,
and many battle in order to control the main trade
routes:
 Tiglath-Pileser III attacked Gaza in order to
Trade history control trade along the Incense Route.

(Classical
Trade)
 • With the establishment of Roman Egypt (30 BC
-641 AD), the Romans initiated trade with India

Trade history
(Classical
Trade)
 • The Maya`s (900 BC – 900 AD) wealthy
merchants who traded long distances and between
city states. Markets convened on specific days of
the Maya calendar, and at times traders used cocoa
beans as currency.
Trade history
(Classical
Trade)
 • Trade and commerce in the medieval world developed to
such an extent that even relatively small communities
had access to weekly markets. Markets and fairs were
organised by large estate owners, town councils, and
Trade history some churches and monasteries, who, granted a licenses.
(Medieval
Trade and Early
Modern)
  The Atlantic slave trade, transatlantic slave trade,
or Euro-American slave trade (16th-19th centuries)
involved the transportation by slave traders of
various enslaved African people, mainly to the
Americas.
Trade history
(Medieval
Trade and Early
Modern)
 • The Columbian exchange (interchange, named after the
Christopher Columbus/ 1492 voyage) was the widespread
transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, culture,
human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the

Trade history New World (the Americas) in the Western Hemisphere, and the
Old World (Afro-Eurasia) in the Eastern Hemisphere, in the late
(Medieval 15th and following centuries.

Trade and Early

Modern)
New World native plants. :
1. Maize (Zea mays); 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum);
3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum); 4. Vanilla (Vanilla);
5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis);
6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao);
7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)
 The
Columbian
voyages

Trade history
(Medieval
Trade and Early
Modern)
Old World native plants
1. Citrus (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malus domestica);
3. Banana (Musa); 4. Mango (Mangifera);
5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee (Coffea);
7. Wheat (Triticum spp.);
8. Rice (Oryza sativa)
 Trade history
(Modern Trade)

The United States enter into the spice trade, merchants

from Salem, Massachusetts traded profitably with Sumatra
during the early years of the 19th century.
 Trade history
(Modern Trade)

Britain invaded China in 1840 to overturn the

Chinese ban on opium imports.
 Trade history
(Modern Trade)

The first international free trade agreement, the Cobden-

Chevalier Treaty, was finalized in 1860 between the United
Kingdom and France.
  The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed by
23 countries in October 1947, after World War II, and became law on
Jan. 1, 1948.
 The purpose of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
was to make international trade easier.
 The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) held eight
rounds in total from April 1947 to December 1993, each with
significant achievements and outcomes.
GATT  In 1995, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was
absorbed into the World Trade Organization (WTO), which extended
it.
  The GATT held eight rounds of meetings between April 1947 and
December 1993. Each of the conferences had significant
achievements and outcomes.

GATT  The first meeting was in Geneva, Switzerland, and included 23

countries. The focus in this opening conference was on tariffs. The
members established tax concessions touching over US$ 10 billion
of trade around the globe.
  The second series of meetings began in April 1949 and were
held in Annecy, France. Again, tariffs were the primary topic.
Thirteen countries were at the second meeting, and they
accomplished an additional 5,000 tax concessions reducing
tariffs.

GATT  Starting in September 1950 the third series of GATT meetings

occurred in Torquay, England. This time 38 countries were
involved, and almost 9,000 tariff concessions passed, reducing
tax levels by as much as 25%.
  Japan became involved in the GATT for the first time in
1956 at the fourth meeting along with 25 other countries.
The meeting was in Geneva, Switzerland, and again the
committee reduced worldwide tariffs, this time by US$
GATT 2.5 billion.
 GATT 1947 initially applied to agriculture, but it was
incomplete, and signatory states (or ‘contracting parties’)
excluded this sector from the scope of the principles stated in
the general agreement.
In the 1947-1994 period, members were allowed to use
export subsidies on agricultural primary products and to
impose import restrictions under certain conditions, with the
GATT result that main agricultural commodities faced barriers to
trade on a scale uncommon in other merchandise sectors.
 The Uruguay Round was the 8th round of multilateral trade
negotiations conducted within the framework of the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, spanning from 1986 to 1993 and
embracing 123 countries as “contracting parties”.
The Marrakesh Agreement, was an agreement signed in Marrakesh,
Morocco, on 15 April 1994, marking the culmination of the 8-year-
long Uruguay Round and establishing the World Trade
URUGUAY Organization, which officially came into being on 1 January 1995.
ROUND The agriculture sector has a specific agreement, the Agreement on
Agriculture (AoA).
  The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only
global international organization dealing with the
rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the
WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the
bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in
their parliaments. The goal is to ensure that trade
flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as
WTO (OMC) possible.
 The WTO's main activities are:
• Being a forum for international trade negotiations (e.g.
the Doha Development Round)
• Resolving trade disputes (Dispute Settlement)
• Setting legal rules for trade in the form of trade agreements
• Monitoring members' trade policy through the Trade
WTO (OMC) Policy Review Mechanism
  Iran (exports include chemicals, natural gas, oil, plastics, fruits, and
ceramic products)
 Algeria (Algeria has the 10th largest natural gas and the 16th largest
oil reserves in the world).
 Sudan (produce 70-80 % from world production of gum Arabic)
• Belarus (The top exports from Belarus include equipment,
WTO (OMC) machinery, minerals products, chemicals, textiles, and metals.

Important non • Serbia (Serbia first applied for membership to the WTO in 2004.
Serbia’s primary exports include electronic equipment, vehicles,
member nations machines and engines, plastics, fruits, iron and steel)
  The Agreement on Agriculture, (the “Agreement”), came into force
on 1 January 1995.
 The reform programme comprises specific commitments to reduce
support and protection in the areas of domestic support, export
subsidies and market access, and through the establishment of
strengthened and more operationally effective GATT rules and
disciplines.
WTO and  The Agreement provides special and differential treatment for
Agriculture developing countries, including an improvement in the
negotiations opportunities and terms of access for agricultural products of
particular export interest to these Members.
  WTO members are currently negotiating agricultural
trade policy reform, having target to making markets
fairer and more competitive. Some of the main
concerns are related with food security, and the
environment.
 These negotiations began in early 2000 under the
WTO and
original mandate of the Agriculture Agreement and
Agriculture became part of the Doha Round at the 2001 Doha
negotiations Ministerial Conference.
  Domestic subsidies for the farm sector — or
“domestic support” — have long been a focus of
WTO agriculture negotiations. Some forms of
support (as direct payment) can distort trade and
WTO topics on markets, undermining the ability of farmers and
Agriculture: other economic actors to compete fairly.

Domestic support
 WTO topics on
Agriculture:
Domestic support
  Protecting agricultural markets through border
measures such as high tariffs can impede access to
markets for farmers as well as raise the cost of food
for consumers.
WTO topics on  In the WTO Agreement on Agriculture,
Agriculture: members agreed to convert all their trade barriers at
Market access the border into tariffs (effectively taxes on imports)
and to set maximum levels for these tariffs.
  In 2015 within Nairobi Ministerial Conference, the
WTO members reached a historic decision to
abolish export subsidies and set new rules for other
WTO topics on forms of export support.
Agriculture:
Export competiton
  Restrictions on food exports is a topic that has risen up
the WTO negotiating agenda since the food price
spikes of the late 2000s. This is when food importing
countries became more concerned that existing WTO
rules in this area may not be sufficient to protect
WTO topics on consumers from the potential negative effects of these
Agriculture: measures on price levels and volatility in other
Export restrictions countries, especially in poor ones.
  Cotton has been high on the WTO agriculture
agenda since 2003, when four West African cotton
producing countries proposed a special sectoral
initiative to address the problems they face in this
WTO topics on area. Reforming cotton subsidies that distort world
Agriculture: markets was and remains an important priority for
Cotton the group.
  A large number of developing countries would like
WTO members to agree on a new “special
safeguard mechanism” which they could use to raise
WTO topics on tariffs temporarily in the event of a sudden surge in
Agriculture: import volumes or a fall in prices.
Special safeguard
mechanism
  Food price inflation in the late 2000s sparked renewed
concern among some developing countries that WTO
farm subsidy rules could limit their ability to buy food
at government-set prices, as part of their public
WTO topics on
Agriculture: stockholding programmes for food security purposes.
Public stockholding for
food security purposes
 DS611 China — Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights
 SHORT TITLE: CHINA — IPRS ENFORCEMENT (EU)
 COMPLAINANT: EUROPEAN UNION
 CONSULTATIONS REQUESTED: 18 FEBRUARY 2022
WTO  CURRENT STATUS: IN CONSULTATIONS
Disputes cases
 China — Measures Concerning Trade in Goods and
Services
 SHORT TITLE: CHINA — GOODS AND
SERVICES (EU)
 COMPLAINANT: EUROPEAN UNION
WTO  CONSULTATIONS REQUESTED: 27 JANUARY
Disputes cases 2022
 CURRENT STATUS: IN CONSULTATIONS
 Egypt — Registration requirements relating to the
importation of certain products
 SHORT TITLE: EGYPT — IMPORT REGISTRATION
REQUIREMENTS (EU)
 COMPLAINANT: EUROPEAN UNION
WTO  CONSULTATIONS REQUESTED: 26 JANUARY
Disputes cases 2022
 CURRENT STATUS: IN CONSULTATIONS
 DS608 Russian Federation — Measures Concerning the
Exportation of Wood Products
 SHORT TITLE: RUSSIA — WOOD (EU)
 COMPLAINANT: EUROPEAN UNION
 CONSULTATIONS REQUESTED: 20 JANUARY
WTO 2022
Disputes cases  CURRENT STATUS: IN CONSULTATIONS
 The EU's responsibilities cover:
• trade in goods and services
• the commercial aspects of intellectual property,
such as patents
EU Trade • public procurement
• foreign direct investment
  The Directorate General for Trade of the European
Commission is in charge of implementing the
common trade policy of the European Union.
 EU trade policy sets the direction for trade and investment in
and out of the EU.

EU Trade –  The Directorate-General for Trade in the European Commission

develops and puts into practice EU trade and investment policy
DG Trade along with the EU's Trade Commissioner ( Valdis Dombrovskis
-Latvia -2019-2024)
EU Trade –
DG Trade
  The EU's trade policy is a central tool to respond to the
challenges posed by globalisation and to turn its potential into
real benefits.
 Economic globalisation is characterised by an increase in
international trade and a growing interdependence of
economies at a global level.

EU Trade  More than 36 million jobs in the EU depend on exports outside

the European Union. On average, every €1 billion worth of
Policy exports to non-EU countries supports more than 13,000 EU
jobs.
 The EU trade policy is composed of three main elements:
• Trade agreements with non EU-counties to open new
markets and increase trade opportunities for EU companies
• Trade regulation to protect EU producers from unfair
competition
• EU membership of the WTO, which sets international
EU Trade trade rules. EU countries are also members, but the
Policy European Commission negotiates on their behalf.
  The EU is a Customs Union - its 27 member countries
(400 millions consumer) form a single territory for
customs purposes.
 This means that no customs duties are paid on goods
moving between EU Member States

The EU Trade  EU Member States apply a common customs tariff

for goods imported from outside the EU
Market
 Goods that have been legally imported can circulate
throughout the EU with no further customs checks.
  The EU has over 40 trade agreements in place with
close to 80 countries.
 In addition, it offers preferential market access to
lower and middle-income countries under the
Generalised Scheme of Preferences.
 Third country markets offer export opportunities and
The EU are also important sources of raw materials and goods
External Trade for EU companies; hence, they are part of their global
supply chains.
  The EU manages trade relations with countries
abroad in the form of trade agreements and
arrangements.
 The agreements and arrangements based on mutual
commitments by the EU and its trading partners and
Trade are designed to create better trading opportunities
agreements and and overcome related barriers.
trade
arrangements
  Trading under an agreement comes with tangible
benefits for businesses such as lower tariffs,
improved market access, and less red tape
(bureaucracy)

Trade
agreements
 Generalised Scheme of Preferences (GSP)

 The EU offers its current GSP to low and lower-middle

income countries. The scheme gives partial or full
removal of EU customs duties for a large number of
Trade products coming into the EU market.
arrangements:
GSP
 Generalised Scheme of Preferences Plus (GSP+)
 The GSP+ scheme is a special incentive arrangement
for sustainable development and good governance. It
cuts EU import customs tariffs to 0% for vulnerable
Trade low and lower-middle income countries that
arrangements: implement 27 international conventions related to
GSP+ human rights, labour rights, protection of the
environment and good governance.
 Everything but Arms (EBA)

 The EBA scheme is a special arrangement for least

developed countries, which grants full duty free
and quota free access to the EU Single Market for all
Trade products except arms and armament.
arrangements:
EBA
 Economic Partnership Agreements (EPA)
 EPAs are trade and development arrangements
between EU and African, Carribbean and Pacific
(ACP) countries designed to facilitate the ACPs'
integration into the world economy through gradual
Trade trade liberalisation and improved trade-related
arrangements: cooperation
EPA
  EU-Canada CETA, EU-Central America
 EU-Chile Association Agreement
 EU-Colombia-Peru-Ecuador Trade Agreement
 EU-Japan EPA
The EU Main
 EU-Mexico Partnership Agreement
Free Trade
Agreements  EU-Singapore FTA, EU-South Korea FTA
 EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement
 EU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement
 Switzerland, Western Balkans
  EU-Canada Comprehensive and Economic Trade
Agreement (CETA)
 CETA is a trade agreement between the EU and
Canada. It cuts tariffs and makes it easier to export
goods and services, benefitting people and
EU- businesses in both the EU and Canada.
CANADA -  CETA entered into force provisionally on 21
CETA September 2017, meaning most of the agreement
now applies. National parliaments in EU countries
– and in some cases regional ones too – will then
need to approve CETA before it can take full effect.
 The benefits of CETA include the following:

 It eliminates duties on 99% of all tariff lines

 It defends the EU’s Geographical Indications
EU-  It improves and secures EU companies’ access to the
CANADA - Canadian services market.
CETA
 CHAPTER ONE - GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND
INITIAL PROVISIONS
SECTION A - General definitions
 ARTICLE 1.1. Definitions of general application
EU-  ARTICLE 1.2. Party-specific definitions
CANADA -  ARTICLE 1.3. Geographical scope of application
CETA
 SECTION B - Initial provisions
 ARTICLE 1.4 Establishment of a free trade area
 ARTICLE 1.5 Relation to the WTO Agreement and other
agreements
 ARTICLE 1.6 Reference to other agreements
 ARTICLE 1.7 Reference to laws
EU-
 ARTICLE 1.8 Extent of obligations
CANADA -  ARTICLE 1.9 Rights and obligations relating to water
CETA  ARTICLE 1.10 Persons exercising delegated governmental
authority
 CHAPTER TWO - NATIONAL TREATMENT AND
MARKET ACCESS FOR GOODS
 ARTICLE 2.1 Objective
 ARTICLE 2.2. Scope
 ARTICLE 2. National treatment

EU-  ARTICLE 2.4 Reduction and elimination of customs duties on imports

 ARTICLE 2.5 Restriction on duty drawback, duty deferral and duty
CANADA - suspension programs

CETA  ARTICLE 2.6 Duties, taxes or other fees and charges on exports
 CHAPTER THREE - TRADE REMEDIES
 In this chapter the EU and Canada reconfirm their rights and
commitments under World Trade Organization rules
 SECTION A - Anti-dumping and countervailing measures

EU-  SECTION B - Global safeguard measures

CANADA -  SECTION C - General provisions

CETA
  CHAPTER FOUR - TECHNICAL BARRIERS TO TRADE
 CHAPTER FIVE - SANITARY AND PHYTOSANITARY
MEASURES
 CHAPTER SIX - CUSTOMS AND TRADE FACILITATION
 CHAPTER SEVEN - SUBSIDIES
 CHAPTER EIGHT - INVESTMENT
EU-  CHAPTER NINE - CROSS-BORDER TRADE IN SERVICES
CANADA -  CHAPTER TEN - TEMPORARY ENTRY AND STAY OF
CETA NATURAL PERSONS FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES
 CHAPTER ELEVEN - MUTUAL RECOGNITION OF
PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
 ……CHAPTER THIRTY - FINAL PROVISIONS
  Mercantilism was an economic system of trade that
spanned from the 16th century to the 18th century.
Mercantilism was based on the idea that a nation's
wealth and power were best served by increasing
exports and so involved increasing trade.

Economic  Mercantilism led to the creation of monopolistic

theories related trading companies, such as the East India Company
and the French East India Company. Restrictions on
with trade: where finished goods could be purchased led in many
Mercantilism cases to burdensome high prices for those goods.
 The Italian economist and mercantilist Antonio
Serra is considered to have written one of the first
Economic treatises on political economy with his 1613 work, A
theories related Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations.
with trade:
Mercantilism
  England began the first large-scale and integrative
approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan
Era (1558–1603).
 An early statement on national balance of trade
Economic appeared in Discourse of the Common Weal of this
Realm of England, 1549: "We must always take heed
theories related
that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them,
with trade: for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them.
Mercantilism
 The underlying principles of mercantilism included:
 the belief that the amount of wealth in the world was
relatively static;
 the belief that a country's wealth could best be judged
by the amount of precious metals or bullion it
Economic possessed;
theories related  the need to encourage exports over imports for
with trade: obtaining a favourable balance of trade.
Mercantilism
  Under a mercantilist system, the restriction of imports
meant consumers obtained access to fewer goods at
higher prices.
 According to the economic theory of mercantilism, a
favourable balance of trade was a necessary means
Economic
of financing a country's purchase of foreign goods
theories related and maintaining its export trade.
with trade:
Mercantilism
 • Restrictions on imports – tariff barriers, quotas or non-
tariff barriers.
• Accumulation of foreign currency reserves, plus gold
and silver reserves. (also known as bullionism) In the
sixteenth/seventeenth century, it was believed that the
accumulation of gold reserves (at the expense of other
countries) was the best way to increase the prosperity of a
Mercantilism country.
involves
• Granting of state monopolies to particular firms
especially those associated with trade and shipping.
 • Subsidies of export industries to give a competitive
advantage in global markets.
• Government investment in research and
development to maximise the efficiency and capacity
of the domestic industry.
• Allowing copyright/intellectual theft from foreign
Mercantilism companies.
involves
• Limiting wages and consumption of the working
classes to enable greater profits to stay with the
merchant class.
• Control of colonies, e.g. making colonies buy from
Empire country and taking control of colonies wealth.
  Physiocracy is an economic theory developed by a
group of 18th-century Age of Enlightenment French
economists who believed that the wealth of nations
derived solely from the value of "land agriculture" or
"land development" and that agricultural products
Economic should be highly priced.
theories related  François Quesnay (1694–1774), Victor de Riqueti
with trade: (1715–1789) and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–
Physiocracy 1781) dominated the movement.
  Whereas mercantilists held that each nation must
regulate trade and manufacture to increase its wealth
and power, the physiocrats contended that labour
Economic and commerce should be freed from all restraint.
theories related
with trade:
Physiocracy
  The concept of absolute advantage was developed by
18th-century economist Adam Smith in his book The
Wealth of Nations to show how countries can gain from
trade by specializing in producing and exporting the
goods that they can produce more efficiently than other
Economic countries.
theories related
with trade: The
absolute advantage
  Smith's ideas–the importance of free markets,
assembly-line production methods, and gross domestic
product (GDP)–formed the basis for theories
of classical economics.
Economic
theories related
with trade: The
absolute advantage
  The comparative advantage is an economic theory,
first developed by 19th-century British economist
David Ricardo, that attributed the cause and benefits of
international trade to the differences in the relative
opportunity costs (costs in terms of other goods given
Economic theories up) of producing the same commodities among
related with trade: countries.
The comparative
advantage
  David Ricardo's theory implies that comparative
advantage rather than absolute advantage is
responsible for much of international trade.
 The core message of Ricardo's theory of comparative
advantage is not that labor is the only factor of
Economic theories production in the world, but rather that relative
related with trade: productivity differences, and not absolute
The comparative productivity differences, are the key determinant of
advantage factor allocation.
  The principle of comparative costs is based on the
differences in production costs of similar commodities
in different countries. Production costs differ in
countries because of geographical division of labour
and specialisation in production.
Economic theories  Each country specialises in the production of that
related with trade: commodity in which its comparative cost of production
The comparative is the least.
advantage
 When a country enters into trade with some other
country, it will export those commodities in which its
comparative production costs are less, and will import
those commodities in which its comparative production
costs are high.
  The Ricardian doctrine of comparative advantage is
based on the following assumptions:
 (1) There are only two countries, say A and B.
 (2) They produce the same two commodities, X and Y
 (3) Tastes are similar in both countries.
Economic theories  (4) Labour is the only factor of production.
related with trade:
The comparative  (5) Prices of the two commodities are determined by
advantage labour cost, i.e.. the number of labour-units employed to
produce each
  (6) Commodities are produced under the law of
constant costs or returns.
 (7) Trade between the two countries takes place on
the basis of the barter system.
 (8) There is free trade between the two countries,
Economic theories
related with trade: there being no trade barriers or restrictions in the
The comparative movement of commodities.
advantage  (9) No transport costs are involved in carrying trade
between the two countries.
 (10) The international market is perfect so that the
exchange ratio for the two commodities is the same
  John Stuart Mill believed in a moral theory
called utilitarianism—that actions that lead to
people's happiness are right and that those that lead
to suffering are wrong.
Economic  In his Principles of Political Economy John Stuart Mill
theories related (1806 - 1873) presents the concept of Value.
with trade: John
Stuart Mill theories
  There are two kinds of value, use and exchange value,
but these are commensurable. Use value is what you
would be prepared to pay for something, and exchange
value is the average market value; use-value can be less
but never more than exchange value;
Economic theories  (exchange) value is a relative, not an absolute concept.
related with trade:
John Stuart Mill –  value is distinguished from price because of the
Value Theory variable "purchasing power of money" and may be
measured against an overall general average of other
commodities rather than just one (i.e. money);
 value fluctuates according to supply and demand
around a "natural value".
  Barriers to Trade: Protectionism takes three main
forms: tariffs, import quotas, and nontariff barriers.
 Tariffs are taxes that a government imposes on
imported goods and services. This makes imports more
expensive for consumers, discouraging purchases of
Economic imports in favour or domestic substitutes.
theories related  Import quotas, which are numerical limitations on the
with trade: quantity of products that a country can import.
Protectionism  Nontariff barriers are all the other ways that a nation
can draw up rules, regulations, inspections, and
paperwork to make it more costly or difficult to import
products.
  Neoliberalism is contemporarily used to refer to market-
oriented reform policies such as "eliminating price controls,
deregulating capital markets, lowering trade barriers" and
reducing, especially through privatization and austerity, state
influence in the economy.

Economic  Neoliberalism sees competition as the defining characteristic

of human relations. It redefines citizens as consumers, whose
theories related democratic choices are best exercised by buying and selling,
with trade: a process that rewards merit and punishes inefficiency
Neoliberalism  Through the IMF, the World Bank, the Maastricht treaty and
the World Trade Organisation, neoliberal policies were
imposed – often without democratic consent – on much of
the world.
  Formed in 1964, ITC (Geneva) has been the focal point
within the United Nations system for trade related
technical assistance (TRTA)
 The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization
ITC aiming to maintain international peace and security,
develop friendly relations among nations, achieve
international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizing
the actions of nations.
(Predecessor of UN: The League of Nations)
Founded: October 24, 1945, San Francisco, California,
Headquarters: New York, United States
  Comerțul intern - conținutul activității de
comerț, funcțiile comerțului

Comerțul intern
  Prospectarea nevoilor reale și potențiale ale
consumatorilor
Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Influențarea producătorilor de a produce numai ceea ce cere
Conținutul piața
activității
de  Customer-centric companies are 60% more profitable than
comerț companies that don’t focus on customers.
  Realizarea circulației și distribuției
bunurilor de la producători la consumatori

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Realizarea actelor de vânzare-cumpărare de
bunuri și servicii

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Satisfacerea nevoilor consumatorilor

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Informarea consumatorilor privind produsele lansate
pe piață: caracteristici, performanțe, conținut,
termen valabilitate, garanție

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Educarea consumatorilor în scopul inițierii și
dezvoltării unor noi trebuințe și influențării
comportamentului de consum

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Publicitatea produselor și serviciilor

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Promovarea unor servicii conexe procesului de
vânzare: livrare la domiciliu, montare sau
instalare, garanție și post garanție
Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Asigurarea unui mediu civilizat în care să se
desfășoare actele de vânzare - cumpărare

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Asigurarea protecției consumatorilor prin
verificarea calității produselor, eliminarea celor
care sunt degradate, deteriorate, cu termen de
valabilitate expirat
Conținutul
activității
de
comerț

NO STOCK= NO SALE

NO SALE=NO CASH!!!
  Recuperarea, refolosirea și reciclarea produselor

Conținutul
activității
de
comerț
  Achiziționare mărfurilor de la producători
 Transferarea mărfurilor cumpărate de la
producători în depozite
 Stocarea mărfurilor în depozite
Funcțiile
 Pregătirea mărfurilor pentru vânzare către
comerțului utilizatorii finali sau intermediari
 Transferarea mărfurilor din locurile de vânzare
către consumatori
  Crearea și dezvoltarea infrastructurii necesare
efectuării operațiunilor comerciale
 Recrutarea și calificarea personalului comercial
 Promovarea produselor și informarea
Alte funcții suport consumatorilor
ale comerțului, care  Cercetarea pieței
țin de organizarea
 Asigurarea resurselor financiare și materiale
internă
necesare derulării activităților comerciale
  Contribuția comerțului la PIB
 Evoluția valorii activelor corporale în comerț
 Evoluția investițiilor realizate în comerț
Analiza  Evoluția valorii producției, a consumului
comerțului intermediar și a valorii adăugate în comerțul cu
interior ridicata și amănuntul
 Productivitatea muncii în comerț
 Forța de muncă ocupată în comerț
  Evoluția nr de întreprinderi în comerțul cu
ridicata și cu amănuntul
 Structura întreprinderilor în funcție de nr de
Analiza angajați
comerțului  CA realizată în comerțul cu ridicata și comerțul
interior cu amănuntul
 Ponderea IMM-urilor în comerț, a CA realizată
de IMM-uri în CA totală
 Specificare 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

PIB
PIB comerț
Contribuție
Contribuția comerț la PIB
(%)
comerțului la
PIB Indicii PIB 100
România (%)

Indicii PIB în 100

comerț (%)
 Specificare 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Valoarea activelor
corporale în econ
națională

Valoarea activelor
corporale în comerț
Ponderea activelor
Evoluția valorii activelor corporale din
corporale în comerț comerț în valoarea
activelor corporale
din economie (%)
Indicii activelor 100
corporale în
economie (%)

Indicii activelor 100

corporale în comerț
(%)
 Specificare 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Valoarea
investițiilor în econ
națională

Valoarea
investițiilor în
comerț

Evoluția investițiilor Ponderea

investițiilor din
realizate în comerț comerț în valoarea
investițiilor din
economie (%)

Indicii investițiilor 100

în la nivel național
(%)

Indicii investițiilor 100

în comerț (%)
 Specificare 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Productivitatea
muncii în econ
națională (lei/pers
ocupată)
Productivitatea
muncii în comerțul
cu ridicata și
amănuntul (lei/pers
ocupată sau lei/oră)
Evoluția productivității Indiciii
muncii în comerț productivității în
economia națională
(%)
Indiciii 100
productivității în
comerțul cu ridicata
(%)
Indiciii
productivității în
comerțul cu
amănuntul