Z00/BIO 104: ANIMAL DIVERSITY

LECTURE NOTE 2

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 PHYLUM RHIZOPODA
• Members form pseudopodia at any place on their cell
body. (Pseudopodia are temporary organelles of
locomotion and feeding.)
• They have two main types of pseudopodia; lobopodia
(with rounded ends), & filopodia (thin & tapering).
• Some are surrounded only by plasma membrane;
therefore referred to as naked amoebae, e.g. Amoeba
proteus.
• In some others, the plasma membrane is covered by a
test (composed of particulate materials); thus known as
testate amoebae, e.g. Arcella, Difflugia.
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Amoeba
(Figure source: Hickman et
al., 2014)
• A naked amoeba.
• Pseudopodia with
rounded ends
(lobopodia).

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Difflugia
(Figure source: Hickman et
al., 2014)
• A testate amoeba.
• Note
 Pseudopodia with
rounded ends
(lobopodia).
 The test composed of
particulate materials.

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 PHYLUM RHIZOPODA (contd)
• The cytoplasm usually has a clearer ectoplasm and
a more granular endoplasm.
• The life cycles are simple; they reproduce either
asexually by binary fission or sexually by syngamy.
• Many are free-living in freshwaters, marine waters,
or damp soil.
 Such forms feed on bacteria, algae & other
protozoans. (What is the significance of this?)
 Examples – Amoeba, Naegleria, Pelomyxa,
Hartmanella, Difflugia, Arcella.
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 PHYLUM RHIZOPODA (contd)
• Some members are parasitic; e.g.
 Entamoeba gingivalis – in mouth & upper pharynx of
humans.
 Entamoeba coli – in intestine & colon of humans &
monkey.
 Entamoeba histolytica – in intestine of humans causing
amoebic dysentery or amoebiasis.
 Naegleria fowleri (= N. aerobia) – a ‘soil’ amoeba which
may infect humans, invade the brain & meninges causing a
fatal disease known as primary amoebic
meningoencephalitis.
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Entamoeba histolytica
(Figure source: Otubanjo,
2013)
• A parasitic amoeba.
• Found in humans.
• Causes amoebic
dysentery.

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Naegleria
(Figure source: Segun,
2013)
• Normally, a soil amoeba.
• May parasitize humans.
• Invade the brain &
meninges in humans.
• Causes a fatal disease,
primary amoebic
meningoencephalitis.

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 PHYLUM GRANULORETICULOSA
• Amoebae with elongate, fine, net-like pseudopodia known as
reticulopodia. (What are the functions of reticulopodia?)
• Two major groups recognized namely Foraminiferida or
Foraminifera, & Athalamida.
I. Foraminiferida
 Have flattened shells.
 Most found in seas; few in fresh and brackish waters.
 Are mainly benthic (live on the sea floor).
 Some are planktonic; e.g. Globigerina (has radiating spicules
which aid floatation).
 Fossils of some foraminiferans are important to the oil industry
(to identify strata in rock drilling).
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Globigerina
(Figure source: Hickman et
al., 2014)
• A planktonic foraminiferan.
• Note the elongate, fine,
net-like pseudopodia
(reticulopodia).

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 PHYLUM GRANULORETICULOSA (contd)

II. Athalamida
 Members lack shells (i.e. are naked).
 Their reticulopodia emerge any place on the
body.
 They are found in freshwater, soil and marine
environments.
 An example is Biomyxa.

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 GRADES OF ORGANIZATION
• In animals, 5 major grades (levels) of body
organization (complexity) are recognised;
protoplasmic, cellular, cell-tissue, tissue-organ, &
organ-system.
1. Protoplasmic
 Occurs in unicellular animals.
 The protoplasm is differentiated into subcellular
structures (organelles) with specialized functions.
 Hence, such animals are at the protoplasmic grade
of organization.
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 GRADES OF ORGANIZATION (contd)
II. Cellular
 There are aggregations of cells concerned with
some functions.
 However, each aggregation of cells is not strongly
associated to perform collective function.
 Most lower (‘primitive’) metazoans are at this
level of organization.
 Examples – Volvox (a colonial protozoan),
sponges (Phylum Porifera).
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 GRADES OF ORGANIZATION (contd)
III. Cell-tissue
 Tissues are aggregations of morphologically
and physiologically related cells that perform a
specific function.
 Animals with such an organization are at the
cell-tissue grade of organization.
 Examples – Hydra, Obelia (Phylum Cnidaria).

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 GRADES OF ORGANIZATION (contd)
IV. Tissue-organ
 Tissues are organized into functional units
called organs.
 The organs perform more specialized functions
than tissues.
 Such animals are the tissue-organ level of
organization.
 Examples – flatworms (Phylum
Platyhelminthes).
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 GRADES OF ORGANIZATION (contd)
V. Organ-system
 At this level, different animal organs work
together (as system) to perform specific
functions.
 It is the highest level of organization.
 Found in most animal phyla; e.g. Phylum
Arthropoda, Phylum Chordata.

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 COELOMY
• Acoelomates (Acoelomy)
 Animals (though triploblastic & bilaterally
symmetrical) without body coelom.
 The mesoderm is completely filled with a
connective tissue called parenchyma.
 Example is flatworms.

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Cross section of a
flatworm illustrating
acoelom
(Source: Hickman et al., 2014)

Note: The mesoderm

filled with
parenchyma.

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 COELOMY (contd)
• Pseudocoelomates
 Pseudocoelom means false coelom. Also known
as blastocoelom.
 The cavity is formed by the blastocoel of the
embryo.
 Organs of the animals lie within the false
coelom & are bathed directly in its fluid.
 Mesoderm only partially surround the cavity.
 Examples – Nematodes, Rotifers.
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 COELOMY (contd)
• Eucoelomates
 In this animals, an actual space develops as a fluid-filled
cavity between the body wall & the gut.
 The cavity is formed within the mesoderm.
 The cavity is completely enclosed within a mesodermal
lining known as peritoneum; hence referred to as
eucoelom (= true coelom).
 Eucoeloms are of two main types
i. schizocoelom – e.g. Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda;
ii. Enterocoelom – e.g. Echinodermata, Chordata.
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Pseudocoelom &
Eucoelom
(Hickman et al., 2014)
• Pseudocoelom
 Formed by persistent
blastocoel.
 E.g. Nematodes.
• Eucoelom (true coelom)
 Formed with the
mesoderm.
 Completely lined
(surrounded) by
mesodermal peritoneum.
 E.g. Annelids, Arthropods,
Chordates.

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 COELOMY (contd)
• Functions of coelom
 Provides a hydrostatic skeleton in some
animals; e.g. annelids.
 Allows muscles to grow independently of the
body wall.

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 SEGMENTATION
• Also known as metamerism.
• Division of the body along its longitudinal axis
into similar segments (or metameres).
• Permits greater body mobility and complexity
of structure & function.
• Occurs in Annelida, Arthropoda, &
Vertebrates.

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 ARTHROPODIZATION
• Development of firm exoskeleton which resist
deformation.
• Suitable for jointed appendages.
• Allows muscular contractions to produce
localized responses.
• However, it limits body size (thus, periodic
moulting, ecdysis must occur).
• Occurs in Arthropods.

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 TAGMOSIS; CEPHALIZATION
TAGMOSIS
• Also known as tagmatization.
• Demarcation of animal body into clearly defined regions
called tagmata.
• Enhances the use of different body regions for specialized
purposes.
• Example – Arthropods.
CEPHALIZATION
• Simply means head formation.
• Allows for efficient positioning of sense organs.
• Allows for easy procurement of food.
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 ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE
• Animals exhibit some varying degrees of
intelligence.
• The different intelligence levels is based on the
animals’ varying capacities to process information.

• Animals have the ability to adapt to their

surroundings by learning to change their habits and
behaviours.
• Many species also form social groups (e.g. honey
bees; termites).
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 ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE (contd)
• Most intelligent animals include
 Octopuses – in Phylum Mollusca; learn with memory &
thus used in brain research.
 Dolphins – in Class Mammalia; help injured or ill ones.
 Chimpanzees – the most intelligent non-human.
 Pigs – able to learn new skills.
 Parrots – able to impersonate human voices.
 Elephants – with the largest brain of all land animals.
 Crows – a type of birds; capable of constructing tools,
using them & saving them for future use.
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RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES

• Human activities are having negative impact on

the natural world; e.g. climate change, habitat
destruction, overharvesting, introduction of
invasive species.
• Animals respond to environmental changes in
three main ways:
 disperse;
 adjust via phenotypic plasticity;
 adapt via genetic changes
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 RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES (contd)

• Plasticity seems very important because opportunities for

dispersal and adaptation are often limited.
• Phenotypic plasticity
 The tendency of a particular genotype to produce different
phenotypes under altered environmental conditions.
 Allows an animal to adjust behaviour to suit its immediate
environment; thereby increases its fitness.
 E.g. some species adjust their mating calls to compensate
for increased background noise from human traffic.
 Increased phenotypic variance has often been linked with
life in cities.

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