Cement Manufacturing For Technicians-1

Cement Manufacturing
Suez Cement Title 1

INDEX
• CHEMISTRY pag. 3
• QUARRY pag. 9
• CRUSHING pag. 17
• PREBLENDING pag. 46
• GRINDING pag. 63
• HOMOGENEIZATION pag. 154
• BURNING pag. 160
• COOLING pag. 179
• COMBUSTION & BURNERS pag. 213
• BYPASS pag. 238
• FANS pag. 253
• TRANSPORTS pag. 261
• DEDUSTING pag. 274
• BASIC KILN OPERATION pag. 294
• QUALITY ASPECTS pag. 307
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CHEMISTRY
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CEMENT PRODUCTION
1450 °C
Calcium carriers + acid oxide carriers Clinker
milling + gypsum
Clinker Cement
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CALCIUM CARRIERS
Basic oxide carrier

CaO
NATURAL
NATURAL BY-PRODUCTS
BY-PRODUCTS
CARRIERS •• Industrial scoria (slag)
CARRIERS Industrial scoria (slag)
•• Limestone •• Chemical calcium carbonate
Limestone Chemical calcium carbonate
•• Marble
Marble
•• Chalk
Chalk
•• Marl
Marl
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ACID OXIDE CARRIERS
Acid
Acidoxide
oxidecarriers
carriers
Si0
Si02 , Al2 O3 ,Fe
, Al O , Fe2OO3
2 2 3 2 3
NATURAL
NATURAL BY-PRODUCTS
BY-PRODUCTS
CARRIERS •• Fly ash
CARRIERS Fly ash
•• Clays •• Industrial scoria (iron & steel)
Clays Industrial scoria (iron & steel)
•• Phillipsites •• Foundry sands
Phillipsites Foundry sands
•• Schists •• Pyrite cinder
Schists Pyrite cinder
•• Marls •• Chips
Marls Chips
•• Sandstones
Sandstones
•• Bauxites
Bauxites
•• Sands
Sands
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CLINKER COMPOSITION
CaO Calcium oxide “Lime” C
SiO2 Silica Oxide“Silica” S
Al2O3 Alumina oxide “Alumina” A
Fe2O3 Iron oxide “Iron” F
A
S F
S A
C 3S ALITE C4AF
C 2S BELITE C 3A CELITE
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CEMENT PRODUCTION
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QUARRY
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QUARRY
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PRELIMINARY INSPECTION - PREPARATION
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EXPLOSIVES AND DETONATORS
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EXPLOSION
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EXPLOSION
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EXPLOSION
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COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT
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CRUSHING
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CRUSHERS CLASSIFICATION
Crushers are classified according to:
Function (product size): Main stress:
primary impact
secondary compression
tertiary shear
finishing attrition
Type of material: Type of machine:

hard jaw
abrasive giratory
compact hammer
sticky impact
wet roller
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CRUSHERS CHOICE - MAIN CRITERIA
Low speed crushers:

jaw and gyratory type
Suitable for abrasive, very hard, dry materials
Low reduction ratio: more than one step required
double roller crusher
Suitable for very wet materials
High speed crushers:

hammer and impact type
Not suitable for abrasive materials
High reduction ratio: finishing in one step possible
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CRUSHER TYPES
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CRUSHER TYPES
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CRUSHER TYPES
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GYRATORY CRUSHERS
• Main stress : compression
• Crushing part (oscillating cone) motion : rotation
• Type (process) of crushing : primary, secondary
• Feeding design : circular, horizontal
• Maximum feed opening radial size : 600 to 1500 mm
• Mini. gap between crushing elem. : 30 to 300 mm
• Maximum reduction ratio : 6 to 8
• Drive motor power : 80 to 750 kW
• Electrical specific consumption : 0.2 to 0.5 kWh/t
• Maximum throughput : 3000 t/h
• Maximum weight : 550 t
• Type of feeding material : hard, compact, abrasive, low moisture, not
sticky
• Regulation of minimum gap
(between crushing elements) by : nearing or moving away the inferior part of the
oscillating cone from/to the tank
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GYRATORY CRUSHER (HYDROCONE)
1. Cross slide
2. Stack
3. Pendulum
4. Eccentric
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SINGLE ROLLER CRUSHERS
• Main stress : compression, shear
• Crushing part (toothed roll) motion : rotation
• Type (process) of crushing : primary, secondary
• Feeding design : rectangular, horizontal
• Maximum roll size (D x L) : (500  700 mm) to (1500  2000 mm)
• Teeth peripheral speed : 1 to 8 m/s
• Maximum reduction ratio :5
• Type of feeding material : medium hard, no abrasive, low moisture,
sticky
(between crushing elements) by : nearing or moving away the mobile roll from/to
the fixed jaw
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SINGLE ROLLER CRUSHER
1. Casing
2. Toothed roll
3. Crushing wall
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SINGLE ROLLER CRUSHER
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DOUBLE ROLLER CRUSHERS
• Main stress : compression, shear

• Crushing part (toothed rollers) motion : rotation
• Type (process) of crushing : primary, secondary, tertialy
• Maximum roll size (D x L) : (600  800 mm) to (2000  2000 mm)
• Teeth peripheral speed : 1 to 8 m/s
• Maximum reduction ratio :5
• Type of feeding material : medium hard, medium abrasive, very wet and
sticky
• Regulation of minimum gap by : nearing or moving away the mobile roll from/to
the fixed roller
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DOUBLE ROLLER CRUSHER
1. Casing
2. Toothed rolls
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DOUBLE ROLLER CRUSHER
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SINGLE ROTOR IMPACT CRUSHERS
• Main stress : impact

• Crushing part (rotor with impact bars)
motion : rotation
• Type(process) of crushing : single stage, primary, secondary
• Feeding design : rectangular, oblique
• Maximum rotor size (DxL) : (800  1000 mm) to (2500  3000 mm)
• Hammer peripheral speed : 30 to 50 m/s
• Maximum reduction ratio : 25
• Type of feeding material : hard, compact, not abrasive, not very wet, not
sticky
• Regulation of minimum gap by : nearing or moving away the mobile part (finishing
wall) from/to the rotor
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SINGLE ROTOR IMPACT CRUSHER
1. Casing
2. Rotor
3. Crushing walls
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DOUBLE ROTOR IMPACT CRUSHERS
• Crushing part (rotor with impact bars)
motion : rotation
• Type (process) of crushing : single stage, primary
• Feeding design : rectangular, oblique
• Type of feeding material : hard, compact, not abrasive, not very wet, not
sticky
(between crushing elements) by : nearing or moving away the mobile rotor from/to
the secondary rotor
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DOUBLE ROTOR IMPACT CRUSHER
1. Casing
2. Rotors
3. Crushing walls
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DOUBLE ROTOR IMPACT CRUSHER
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SINGLE ROTOR HAMMER CRUSHERS

• Crushing part (rotor) motion : rotation
• Type (process) of crushing : single stage, primary, secondary, tertialy
• Feeding design : rectangular, horizontal and oblique
• Hammers peripheral speed : 25 to 50 m/s
• Type of feeding material : hard, not abrasive, compact, low moisture, not
sticky
(between crushing elements) by : choice of grate opening
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SINGLE ROTOR HAMMER CRUSHER
1. Casing
2. Rotor
3. Hammers
4. Crushing walls
5. Grate
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SINGLE ROTOR HAMMER CRUSHER
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DOUBLE ROTOR HAMMER CRUSHERS

• Crushing part (rotor) motion : rotation
• Type of crushing process : primary, secondary, tertialy
• Feeding design : rectangular, horizontal and oblique
• Type of feeding material : hard, compact, not abrasive, low moisture, not
sticky
(between crushing elements) by : choice of grate opening
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DOUBLE ROTOR HAMMER CRUSHER
1. Casing
2. Hammer rotors
3. Breaker anvil
4. Grate
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JAW CRUSHERS
• Main stress : compression
• Crushing part (mobile jaw) motion : alternative
• Type of crushing process : primary, secondary
• Maximum feed opening size : 400 to 2500 mm
• Mini. gap between crushing elem. : 30 to 250 mm
• Maximum reduction ratio : 8 to 10
• Type of feeding material : hard, compact, abrasive, low moisture, not
sticky
(between crushing elements) by : nearing or moving away the inferior part of the
mobile jaw from/to the fixed jaw
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JAW CRUSHER
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JAW CRUSHER
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ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF
COMMINUTION PLANTS
- CRUSHING => 1 - 3 kWh/t product
- RAW GRINDING => 15 - 30 kWh/ tproduct
- COAL GRINDING => 35 - 50 kWh/ tproduct
- CEMENT GRINDING => 30 - 80 kWh/ tproduct
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CONCLUSION
GRINDING AND CRUSHING

CONCERN 60 TO 65% OF THE
GLOBAL ELECTRIC PLANT
CONSUMPTION
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PREBLENDING
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PREBLENDING
After the crushing phase, the raw materials, whose sizes are reduced
typically to less than 300 mm, are transported, normally through belt
conveyors, to the storage areas (open or closed).
Here the material is stocked and a first phase of blending is executed using
the simple deposit and reprise of the material.
Two kinds of machines can be observed in this process:

- Stacker: machine for the arrival and deposit of the material
- Reclaimer: machine for the reprise of material from the storage
By making these two operations in different directions it is possible to obtain

a mixing effect, reducing the variation of quality which can come from
different layers of material in different zones of the quarry .
The homogeneity of the raw materials is fundamental for the optimization

of the operation of all the machines downwards (mills, kilns, etc…)
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CHEVRON STACKING with FRONTAL RECLAIMING
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CIRCULAR CHEVRON STACKING
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WINDROW STACKING with FRONTAL RECLAIMING
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CONICAL STACKING with FRONTAL RECLAIMING
(CONICAL SHELL)
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STACKERS:
DOUBLE BELT (TRANSPORT AND DISCHARGE)
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STACKERS:
REVERSIBLE TRANSPORT BELT
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STACKERS:
LATERAL DISCHARGE (SIDE STACKER)
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RECLAIMERS:
FRONTAL BRIDGE WITH BLADES
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RECLAIMERS:
FRONTAL BRIDGE WITH BLADES
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RECLAIMERS:
FRONTAL WITH BUCKET WHEEL
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RECLAIMERS:
LATERAL ON THE FRONT
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RECLAIMERS:
LATERAL
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RECLAIMERS:
LATERAL
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RECLAIMERS
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RECLAIMERS
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GRINDING
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GRINDING MILLS
· VERTICAL MILLS
· HORIZONTAL BALL MILLS
· AUTOGENOUS MILLS
· ROLLER PRESS
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GRINDING MILLS
HORIZONTAL BALL MILL
VERTICAL MILL ROLLER PRESS
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VERTICAL MILLS - TYPES
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VERTICAL MILL – OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE
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VERTICAL (ROLLER) MILL - LOESCHE
Gas + fine material outlet Raw material inlet
Separator motor
Dynamic separator
Separator reject
Lining
Dam ring
Grinding rollers
Grinding table
Mill gear box Hot gas inlet
Hydraulic cylinder
Rollers frame
Mill motor
Mill reject
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HORIZONTAL BALL MILLS
ADVANTAGES
 LARGE FINAL PRODUCT RANGE
(final product fineness from 2800 to 5500 Blaine)
 LOW COST OF MAINTENANCE

(care with ball charge wearing; material and internal part design)
 VERY WELL KNOWN COMPONENTS
 NO VIBRATION
 EASY TO OPERATE
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DISADVANTAGES
 HIGH SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION (kWh/t)
 HIGH INSTALLATION COST
 LOW VENTILATION
 LOW DRYING CAPACITY
 NOISE
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 DOUBLE ROTATOR BALL MILL AS DRYER MILL FOR

ABRASIVE MATERIAL.
 FINE AND ULTRA-FINE PRODUCTS.
 MAIN EVOLUTION WILL CONCERN INTERNAL PARTS

(LINERS, AND DIAPHRAMS).
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RATIO LENGTH/DIAMETER MILL
OPEN CIRCUIT 5 6
RAW CLOSED CIRCUIT 2 3
SWEPT CLOSED CIRCUIT 2
CEMENT CLOSED CIRCUIT 3  3.5
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SINGLE CHAMBER
· BETTER MATERIAL DISTRIBUTION INTO THE MILL
· PROPER LINER
· CARE WITH COARSE MATERIAL FEEDING
· USUALLY USED FOR MILL WITH L/D < 2.5
· LOWER MAINTENANCE COST
· HIGHER VENTILATION
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SINGLE CHAMBER (TOSI 4 x 8 m)
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TWO CHAMBERS
FIRST CHAMBER SECOND CHAMBER

• Material size reduction : • Material size reduction :
from feed 0 - 35 mm to max 5 % > 2,5 mm from 5% > 2,5 mm to
• Breakage effect 10 - 20 % < 90 µm (closed circuit)
• Lifter liners 5 % < 90 µm (open circuit)
• Specific energy in consumption : • Attrition effect
 8-10 kWh/t (closed circuit) • Classifying liners
 10-12 kWh/t (open circuit) • 25-40 m2 /t of balls (according to
• Specific ball charge surface: 9-11 m2/t of L/D ratio)
balls • Length =70-65 % total mill length
• Length =30-35 % total mill length • Ball size 60-17 mm
• Ball average weight : 1600 - 2000 g • Cylpebs 50x25 - 16x16 mm
• Ball size : 100 - 60 mm
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HORIZONTAL BALL MILL – TWO CHAMBERS
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TWO CHAMBERS (TOSI 5.4 x 12 m)
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THREE CHAMBERS
· USED IN OPENED CIRCUIT

· LOW VENTILATION
· CYLPEBS IN THIRD CHAMBER
· TOTAL LENGTH :  First chamber => ca 30%
 Second chamber => ca 20%
 Third chamber => ca 50%
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THREE CHAMBERS (MILL 2.4 x 13 m)
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AIR SWEPT HORIZONTAL MILL
A: Hot gas inlet C: Drying compartment E: Grinding compartment G: Trunnion bearing
B: mill feed D: Slide shoe bearing F: Mill drive (girth gear) H: Mill discharge
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AIR SWEPT FLS TYRAX MILL
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CENTRAL DISCHARGE HORIZONTAL MILL
“DOPPELROTATOR” MILL
A: Feed arrangement C: Grinding compartment
B: Drying compartment D: Discharge arrangement
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CENTRAL DISCHARGE HORIZONTAL MILL
“DOPPELROTATOR” MILL (MILL 10’ X 22’ + 12’)
Drying chamber First compartment Second compartment
Useful diam. 2878

discharge
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CENTRAL DISCHARGE FLS DUODAN MILL
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HORIZONTAL MILL WITH DRYING CHAMBER
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MILL ON PAD SHOE BEARINGS AND ANULAR DRIVE
RING MOTOR
PAD SHOE BEARING
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EXTERNAL/INTERNAL ELEMENTS OVERWIEW
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LINERS & DIAPHRAGMS
Step liners Wide wave liners
Wave liners Lifter classifying

liners
Bar liners Classifying liners
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LINERS & DIAPHRAGMS
DIAPHRAGMS
 Goals => optimised the filling ratio (adjustable diaphragms)
=> keep the coarse into the first compartment
=> let the fines passed into the second compartme
=> separate the balls (from one chamber to the oth
=> allow air to pass through the mill
=> maximum central opening according to ball cha
filling degree
 Discharge diaphragm slots > central diaphragm slots
 Trend: Flow controlling devices
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LINERS & DIAPHRAGMS
INTERMEDIATE DIAPHRAGM FLOW CONTROL
Adjustable
lifters
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A WAY TO SAVE MONEY
 OPTIMIZING THE GRINDING PROCESS
 RUNNING THE MILL AT OPTIMUM LEVEL
 UPGRATING PLANTS WITH NEW

TECHNOLOGY
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ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
IN GRINDING
Grindability of the material is measured by
• Compressive strength N/cm2 (crushing)

• Bond index kWh/t (raw material)
• Alsing / CTG test kWh/t (raw, clinker)
• Zeisel test kWh/t (clinker, slag)
• Hardgrove number (coal, pet coke)
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MILL POWER
n
b C = mill axle
G = centre of gravity
F = material and balls weight
b = lever arm
C n = mill rotation speed
G POWER =  n (F  b)
F
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MILL POWER
COMPANY CIMAR MILL RAW MILL
PLANT MARRAKECH TYPE POLYSIUS 3.6 x 12 m
1st compart. 2nd compart. tot/avg drying compa rtme nt

m m m D useful m 3,554
D useful m 3,440 3,420 3,43 L useful m 2,5
L useful m 4,008 3,790 7,80 Mec kW 89,3
J % 31,3 25,8 28,6
3
s t/m 4,5 4,7 4,6 balls charge tons
Vactual rpm 16,2 % Vcritical 70,9 1st compart. 2nd compart.
ball size max mm 90 52 42

h tot % 0,870 94
ABSORBED POWER CALCULATION

Magotteaux CMM Slegten (old) FCB A. C. 2 AVERAGES
MECHANICAL 1st comp. kW 600 630 600 589 630 610

2nd comp. kW 509 536 511 482 537 515
totale kW 1.209 1.257 1.203 1.160 1.259 1.218
ELECTRICAL 1st comp. kW 690 725 690 677 724 701
2nd comp. kW 585 617 587 554 617 592
totale kW 1390 1445 1383 1231 1447 1379
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BALL CHARGE
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CLASSIFYING PROCESS
· THEORY
· CYCLONE
· STATIC CLASSIFIER
· DYNAMIC CLASSIFIERS
¨ FIRST GENERATION
¨ SECOND GENERATION
¨ THIRD GENERATION
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SEPARATOR THEORY
A
CIRCULATING LOAD
A = R + F (t / h)
or
A/F (ratio)
FRESH FEED R F
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SEPARATOR THEORY
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLASSIFIERS
CYCLONE STATIC DYNAMIC

TO DUST COLLECTOR
FINE MATERIAL
TO DUST COLLECTOR
MATERIAL GAS WITH FINES
GAS WITH
MATERIAL
GAS
REJECT
GAS FROM
PRODUCT
MILL
REJECT
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SEPARATOR – OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE
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SEPARATOR TYPES - CYCLONE
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SEPARATOR TYPES - STATIC SEPARATOR
To mill dust collector
Fines
Adjustable guide vanes

Reject
Mill vent air
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SEPARATOR TYPES - DYNAMIC SEPARATOR
 FIRST GENERATION
 SECOND GENERATION
 THIRD GENERATION
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FIRST GENERATION DYNAMIC SEPARATORS
STURTEVANT Characteristics
• Single drive
• Selection device (distribution
plate)
• Main fan
3 Functions with the
same motor
Fineness regulation by
• Selection blade number
• Selection and fan blade size
• Diaphragm valve
small fineness range
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FIRST GENERATION DYNAMIC SEPARATORS
POLYSIUS
Double drive:
variable speed
and fixed speed
Fan
(fixed speed) feed
Selection
blades
Feed
distribution
plate
Fineness adjustment
by variable speed
reject
fines
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SECOND GENERATION DYNAMIC SEPARATORS
Main description
• Central body
• Satellite cyclones
• High efficiency main fan
Characteristics
• Fine particle captation made by
small cyclones
• Regulated air flow
(recirculation
air flow)
Fineness regulation by
• Distribution plate speed
• Recirculation air flow
• Selection blades number &
size
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SECOND GENERATION DYNAMIC SEPARATORS
ADVANTAGES
• FINENESS REGULATION EASILY FROM CCR
• COOLING CAPACITY (by regulating fresh air flow)
• DRYING CAPACITY
• SEPARATION OF DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS
(Separation, Ventilation, Captation ...)
• HIGH EFFICIENCY VENTILATOR
• LARGE FINENESS RANGE
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THIRD GENERATION DYNAMIC SEPARATORS
O-SEPA
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GRINDING CIRCUITS
DRY PROCESS
· OPEN CIRCUIT
· CLOSED CIRCUIT
· RAW MATERIAL CIRCUIT
· SWEPT CIRCUIT
· COAL CIRCUIT
· CEMENT CIRCUIT
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GRINDING - OPEN CIRCUIT
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ADVANTAGES
• LOW INVESTMENT COST
• SIMPLE LAY-OUT
• SPECIFIC POWER CONSUPTION ACCEPTABLE

. FOR COARSE CEMENT (maximum 3000 Blaine OPC)
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DISADVANTAGES
• RISK TO FIND COARSE PARTICLE IN CEMENT
• NO ACCURATE REGULATION POSSIBILITY FOR

DIFFERENT KINDS OF CEMENT
• FINE CEMENT PRODUCTION EXPENSIVE
• LOW VENTILATION
• NO DRYING CAPACITY
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GRINDING – CLOSED CIRCUIT
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ADVANTAGES
• GOOD EFFICIENCY (kWh/t)
• LARGE FINENESS RANGE
• HIGH RRS SLOPE
• DRYING & COOLING CAPACITY
• CIRCUIT REGULATION POSSIBILITIES
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DISADVANTAGES
• HIGH INVESTMENT COST
• MORE MAINTENANCE COST

=> NUMBER OF MACHINES (vs. opened circuit)
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OPEN/CLOSED CIRCUIT COMPARISON
BLAINE
cm2/g
Closed circuit
Open circuit
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OPEN/CLOSED CIRCUIT COMPARISON
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
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DRY PROCESS STANDARD CIRCUIT
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DRY PROCESS DOUBLE ROTATOR
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DRY PROCESS AIR SWEPT
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DRY PROCESS VERTICAL ROLLER MILL
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CEMENT CIRCUITS
· ONE FILTER CEMENT CIRCUIT
· ONE FILTER SERIAL CEMENT CIRCUIT
· TWO FILTER CEMENT CIRCUIT
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ONE FILTER CEMENT CIRCUIT
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ONE FILTER SERIAL CEMENT CIRCUIT
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TWO FILTERS CEMENT CIRCUIT
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OTHERS
· REGULATION CONTROL LOOPS
· TRANSITORY MILL OPERATION
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MILLS – POSSIBLE REGULATIONS
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CIRCUIT PROCESS CONTROL
CLOSED CIRCUIT
Mill feed
• MILL FEED BY ELEVATOR MOTOR POWER
( affected by mechanical problems of bucket elevator )
or
• MILL FEED BY SEPARATOR REJECT WEIGTH
( impact weight feeder requires frequent calibration and
proper installation)
and
• MILL FEED BY MILL FIRST COMPARTMENT NOISE
( electronic ear needs proper installation and its signal is
affected by surrounding noises)
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CLOSED CIRCUIT
Mill outlet or product temperature
Cooling
• MILL OUTLET TEMPERATURE BY WATER SPRAYING IN
- 1st compartment (from mill inlet) with hot clinker
- 2nd compartment (from intermediate or outlet diaphragm)
( only for temperature > 110°C )
• MILL OUTLET TEMPERATURE BY KEEPING MILL VENTILATION

AT MAXIMUM LEVEL
• FINISH PRODUCT TEMPERATURE BY SEPARATOR FRESH AIR

INTAKE
( suitable for 2nd and 3rd generation dynamic separators )
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CLOSED CIRCUIT
Mill outlet or product temperature
Heating and drying
• MILL OUTLET TEMPERATURE BY BURNER FUEL
=> risk of cement quality by unburned
=> maximum mill inlet temperature for cement grinding 350 °C
or
• MILL OUTLET TEMPERATURE BY FRESH AIR DAMPER
ON HOT GASES DUCT FROM HEATING SOURCE
• PRODUCT TEMPERATURE BY RECIRCULATION DAMPER

AND/OR FRESH AIR DAMPER IN SEPARATOR AIR
RECIRCULATION SYSTEM
=> 2nd and 3rd generation dynamic separators
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CLOSED CIRCUIT
DOUBLE ROTATOR MILL
IN ADDITION TO CONTROLS AS FOR STANDARD CIRCUIT
• MATERIAL FILLING DEGREE OF MILL COMPARTMENTS

( electronic ear for each compartment ) BY DISTRIBUTION
OF SEPARATOR REJECT FLOW BETWEEN GRINDING
AND FINISHING COMPARTMENTS
• AIR FLOW ( fresh or hot ) IN FINISHING COMPARTMENT

MANUALLY ADJUSTED FOR PROPER MILL VENTILATION
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INFLUENT PARAMETERS ON kWh/t
· MILL SPEED
· BALL-MATERIAL FILLING DEGREE
· BALL CHARGE
· LINERS AND DIAPHRAGMS (CIRCULATING LOAD)
· VENTILATION AND AIR VELOCITIES
· FALSE AIR
· MILL FEED MOISTURE
· FRESH FEED P80
· PRODUCT FINENESS
· OTHERS
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BALL/MATERIAL VOLUME LOAD
First chamber Second chamber

Mill material level
HOW TO CHECK CORRECT MATERIAL FILLING
• CIRCULATING LOAD
• MILL INSPECTION AFTER CRUSH STOP
• MILL NOISE
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MILL VENTILATION AND AIR VELOCITIES
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VENTILATION – FALSE AIR
False air affects a lot the mill ventilation
False air can come from

 Mill tube: inlet sealings
outlet sealings
material feed
 Mill discharge
 Dedusting
 Bag filter jet pulsing
 High negative pressure ducts and machines
 ...
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VENTILATION – FALSE AIR
Point to check for false air in the grinding circuit
hot gas
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VENTILATION - FALSE AIR
• kWh/t
• Mill ventilation
• Mill efficiency
• Drying capacity
How to fight false air

• Control air tightness into the circuit
• Temperature through the circuit
• Gas analysis (only with furnace or kiln gas)
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MILL FEED MOISTURE
• MAXIMUM DRYING CAPACITY OF HORIZONTAL

MILLS WITHOUT DRYING CHAMBER:
=> 1.5% OF WATER IN FRESH FEED MATERIAL
• ABOVE THIS PERCENTAGE THE ENERGY MAY

BE BROUGHT BY EXTERNAL HEAT SOURCE
(care about quality !!!)
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FRESH FEED GRANULOMETRY AND
PRODUCT FINENESS
FRESH FEED GRANULOMETRY
Horizontal mills 0  30 mm P80 = 20 mm
Vertical mills 0  120 mm P80 = 80 mm (depending on rollers size)
FINISH PRODUCT FINENESS

Raw meal residue 90 m 5  15 % (depending on kiln type)
residue 200 m 0  1.5 %
Coal residue 90 m 5  18 % (depending on coal type)

residue 200 m 0  2 %
OPCement 32.5 Blaine 2800  3300 cm2/g (depending on

OPCement 42.5 Blaine 3300  3800 cm2/g clinker reactivity)
OPCement 52.5 Blaine 3800  5000 cm2/g
Suez Cement 139

GRINDING ADDITIVES
USE AND EVALUATION OF BENEFITS
Suez Cement 140

WHERE TO USE GRINDING ADDITIVES
Grinding additives, injected with the fresh feed, are used in

the following grinding circuits:
• Horizontal ball mills for raw meal grinding
• Horizontal ball mills for cement grinding
• Vertical roller mills for cement grinding
Suez Cement 141

WHY TO USE GRINDING ADDITIVES
Grinding additives, pure or with water, allow to obtain:
 Improvement of raw meal and cement grinding efficiency, by avoiding

coating or agglomeration phenomenon
 Increase of mill efficiency
 Increase of separation efficiency
The following benefits are the basis for the profitability calculation:
 Reduction of mill specific consumption

 Increase of mill capacity
 Reduction of running hours
 Avoid electricity peak price
 Better schedule of maintenance
Suez Cement 142

WHY TO USE GRINDING ADDITIVES
Grinding additives, pure or with water, allow to obtain:

 Increasing of cement strength (short term and/or long term, depending
on additive type)
 Optimization of the cement composition (clinker
reduction)
 Gain of market rates (better product competitiveness)
 Improvement of running stability for cement grinding with vertical roller

mills
 Vibration reduction (steady material bed under the rollers)
• Improvement of mill run factor

• Reduction of maintenance costs
 Improvement of raw meal flowability

 Better blending efficiency
• Reduction of Standard Deviation
• Better burnability
 Reduction of unextractable material in the silos
Suez Cement 143

WHEN TO USE GRINDING ADDITIVES
• The benefits obtained have to compensate, at least, the additional cost

coming from the use of the additives
• The use of grinding additives becomes economically convenient, in

general, only if a production improvement is reached.
• Proper performance tests have to be done for the evaluation of the

benefits obtained
Suez Cement 144

MAIN CLASSIFICATION OF ADDITIVES
The chemical composition of grinding additives depends on their

use:
production Chemical composition

based on amino
increase compounds
GRINDING
ADDITIVES
Chemical composition
strength based on
improvement trietanolamine
Note: also a combined effect can be obtained
Suez Cement 145

DATA EVALUATION CONCLUSION
· GRINDING EFFICIENCY
· MATERIAL SIZE DISTRIBUTION
· BALLS / MATERIAL
· BALLS CLASSIFICATION
· BALL CHARGE
· COATING
· LINERS AND DIAPHRAGMS
· SEPARATOR
· VENTILATION AND FALSE AIR
· THERMAL BALANCE
· MILL FEED MOISTURE
Suez Cement 146

GRINDING EFFICIENCY
Suez Cement 147

GRINDING EFFICIENCY
ENERGY CONVERSION
100% 3 – 10%
90 - 97%
Suez Cement 148

MILL FILLING DEGREE AND BALL CHARGE
Material filling degree versus ball charge
Max filling ratio Actual filling

ratio
Mill installed power Mill

absorbed power
Possibility to increase
production
Suez Cement 149
MILL FILLING DEGREE
Low filling material level in the mill
Mill material level
Suez Cement 150

MILL FILLING DEGREE
High filling material level in the mill
Mill material level
Suez Cement 151

MILL FILLING DEGREE
Correct filling material level in the mill
Mill material level
Suez Cement 152

BALL CLASSIFICATION INSIDE THE MILL
Average balls Criteria

diameter • Straight line in C1
• Decreasing line in C2
C.1.1 C.1. n C.2.1 C.2.n
Ball classification affected by

• ball charge filling degree
• material filling degree
Suez Cement 153

HOMOGENEISATION
Suez Cement 154

STAGED DISCONTINUOUS HOMO SILO
Suez Cement 155

PNEUMATIC HOMOGENEISATION (POLYSIUS)
Suez Cement 156

MECHANICAL HOMOGENEISATION
(FUNNEL FLOW - FLS)
Suez Cement 157

CONTINUOUS HOMOGENEISATION
(CLAUDIUS PETERS)
Suez Cement 158

CONTINUOUS HOMOGENEISATION
(POLYSIUS)
Suez Cement 159

BURNING
Suez Cement 160

CLINKER PRODUCTION - PHASES
Temperature Process Reactions
°C
Drying
20 - 100 Free water vaporization
100 - 300 Crystallization water vaporization
400 - 600 Linked water vaporization
Calcination
600 - 900 CaCO3 CaO + CO 2
< 800 Formation of belite, aluminates, and
other metastable phases
Sinterization
Clinkerisation
< 1250 Formation of liquid phase rich in A & F
Formation of alite
1450 Final formation of alite and belite
Cooling
1300 - 1240 Amorphous phases solidification
Crystallization
Suez Cement 161

BURNING – FLOW SHEET
Suez Cement 162

CLINKER PRODUCTION – CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Suez Cement 163

ROTARY KILN
• Steel shell
– 25-75 mm thickness
• Supports
• Tires
– Not fixed to shell
– Allow for differential expansion
• Seals
– Prevent air inleakage
• Refractory lined
– Protect shell
– Different applications
• Abrasion
• Thermal resistance
• Bonding Desired shell temperatures below 420°C
Suez Cement
ROTARY KILNS IN DIFFERENT PROCESSES
Suez Cement 165

KILN BRICK LINING
Suez Cement 166

BURNING – WET PROCESS
• Slurry, 30-40% water

• Kiln length100-160 m
• Consistent quality
• Possibile raw mix with high
minor elements (no crust
problems)
• Poor fineness control Kiln
slurry
• Chains provide heat transfer

(reduce heat consumption)
• Poor fuel consumption
– 1,400-1,650 kcal/kgCK
• 3½-5 h residence time
Suez Cement 167

WET PROCESS – CHAIN SYSTEM
• Used for heat transfer
– Kilns should be 2½ times longer without chains for the
same heat exchange
• Conveys material
– “Screws” material through kiln
• Dust collection
– Captures dust and places back into load
Typical Chain Arrangement

Curtain
Dust curtain – knocks dust from gas stream

Plastic zone – feed becomes tacky
Bare zone(s) – allows gas temperatures and material flow to
equalize; permits installation of thermocouples
Garland Radiation curtain – stainless steel; absorbs the most heat
Suez Cement 168

BURNING – PREHEATER DRY PROCESS
• Pulverized kiln feed

• High clinker capacity
• Kiln length 70-90 m
• Particles suspended in gas
– Increased surface area
exposed to heat
– Improved heat transfer
• 50-65% calcination
• Improved fuel consumption
– 780-850 kcal/kgCK
• ½-¾ h residence time
– More sensitive to changes
• Sensitive to minor elements
Suez Cement 169

SUSPENSION PREHEATER
• Dust in suspension
– Efficient heat transfer
• Multiple stages
– More stages, better thermal efficiency
– Drying gases for RM and/or CM
• Countercurrent and concurrent flow
• Meal valves
– Freely moving
– Prevent back draft
• Crust problems for minor elements
Suez Cement 170

CYCLONES
Suez Cement 171

Suez Cement 172

Suez Cement 173

DRY PROCESS WITH PRECALCINER
• Pulverized kiln feed
• Very high clinker production
• Kiln length 55-75 m
• 90-95% calcination degree
– Shorter kiln
– Reduced kiln heat load
– Increased refractory life
– Increased running stability
• Improved fuel consumption
– 720-830 kcal/kgCK
• ⅓-½ h residence time
– More sensitive to changes
– 2 firing points Calcination:
CaCO3 + heat  CaO + CO2
– More sensitive to minor elements MgCO3 + heat  MgO + CO2
Suez Cement 174

CALCINER
• Secondary firing
– Improved NOx control
• Air through or air separate systems
• Improved calcination
– Less gas through kiln
• Reduced thermal loading
– Improved refractory life
• Fewer mechanical components
– Shorter kiln
– Fewer tires
– Less steel
– Less refractory
– Smaller motor
Suez Cement 175

PRECALCINER SECONDARY FIRING
The secondary firing helps to achieve:
1) Process stability
2) Stability of kiln coating
3) Reduction of thermal load in burning zone
4) Use of low cost, lower grade fuels
5) Higher kiln capacity
Suez Cement 176

CALCINER TYPES
In-Line Calciner
Precombustion Chamber
SLC-S: Separate Line Calciner Special Separate Line Calciner
Suez Cement 177

IN-LINE CALCINER
Suez Cement 178

COOLING
Suez Cement 179

CLINKER COOLING PURPOSES
The cooler is one of the most important machines of the clinker
production line.
Its main functions are:

- Convey clinker
- Cool hot clinker to temperatures conveying equipments can handle
- Provide a preliminary crushing of clinker
But also, from efficiency point of view:

- Provide hot combustion air for fuel and drying gases for grinding
. circuits
- Recover heat to reduce heat (and therefore fuel) consumption
And from quality point of view:

- Maximize C3S content (and therefore clinker resistance)
- Minimize the size of the clinker crystals (reducing energy consumption
. for cement mills)
Suez Cement 180

CLINKER QUALITY BENEFITS
One very important purpose of a clinker cooler is also to quench clinker as

quickly as possible, since slow cooling of clinker results in:
– Crystallization of the molten material separately, into C3A and C4AF (

glass)
– Conversion of C3S into C2S + liquid phase (retrogradation)
– Separate crystallization of the MgO as periclase
– Formation of large crystals (C3S, C2S, periclase, CaOl) which influences

the clinker reactivity.and the grinding efficiency
Suez Cement 181

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COOLERS
Rotary cooler
Satellite cooler
Grate cooler
Suez Cement 182

SATELLITE COOLER
Suez Cement 183

SATELLITE COOLER
Suez Cement 184

ROTARY COOLER
Suez Cement 185

WHITE CEMENT – WATER INJECTION
Suez Cement 186

WHITE CEMENT - QUENCHING
Suez Cement 187

GRATE COOLER
Suez Cement 188

GRATE COOLER - PRINCIPLES
Suez Cement 189

GRATE COOLER
Suez Cement 190

CLINKER COOLER GRATE PLATES
Suez Cement 191

BASIC CHALLENGE OF A GRATE COOLER
Suez Cement 192

BASIC CHALLENGE OF A GRATE COOLER
Suez Cement 193

INLET WITH HORSE SHOE
Suez Cement 194

AERATION TECHNIQUES
A B
Chamber
ChamberAeration:
Aeration: Direct
DirectAeration:
Aeration:
No
Nointernal
internalcollector
collectorpipes
pipes No
Noair
airescapes
escapes
Reduced
Reducedpressure
pressuredrop
drop Reduced
Reducedair
airflows
flows
Limited
Limitedcost
cost Better
Betterthermal
thermalrecuperation
recuperation
Suez Cement 195

FLS COOLAX AIR DISTRIBUTION
Suez Cement 196

CROSSBAR GRATE AIR DISTRIBUTION
Comparison between MFR and air beam technology cooling air feeding of
the grate
Suez Cement 197

CROSSBAR GRATE AIR DISTRIBUTION
Positioning of the Mechanical Flow Regulator in case of a non homogeneous

clinker bed
Suez Cement 198

CLINKER COOLER AIR DISTRIBUTION
• Highest specific air flow (Nm3/h/m2) towards front of cooler
– Improve secondary air temperature (replace fuel heat – save $)
– Quench clinker (arrest crystal growth – improve quality,
decrease grinding energy)
7000 400
6000 350
300
5000
250
4000
Nm^3/h/m^2
200
scfm/ft^2
3000
150
2000
100
1000 50
0 0
Fan 1 Fan 2 Fan 3 Fan 4 Fan 5 Fan 6
Suez Cement 199

GRATE COOLER – FIXED INLET
Suez Cement 200

FULLER GRATE – IKN SYSTEM
Suez Cement 201

GRATE COOLERS - EVOLUTION
Type 1 Type 2
Cooler one Stage cooler
grate 1.500 - 12.000 tpd
1 2
< 1500 tpd
Type 3 Type 4
Grate + G-cooler
Multiple grates 1.500 - 10.000 tpd
1.500 - 12.000 tpd
3 4
Sp.load max
110 tpd/m²
Suez Cement 202

COOLERS – LATEST TECHNOLOGIES
The common principle of the most modern cooler is to improve:
• the clinker distribution and transportation
• the air distribution
FLS - CP - EtaCooler POLYSIUS - Polytrack

CrossBar
KHD - Pyrofloor IKN - Pendolum
Suez Cement 203

CLINKER DUST DISCHARGE SYSTEM
Suez Cement 204

COOLER CRUSHERS
Hammer Roller
 Maximum temperature 350 °C 800 °C

 Maximum capacity 6,000 t/d 12,000 t/d
 Dust emissions high low
 Velocity >300 rpm 4 rpm
 Drive mechanical hydraulic or mechanical
 Life of crushing elements 100% >300%
 Big clinker blocks Must be eliminated Eliminated by the
before the crusher crusher
Suez Cement 205

ROLLER CRUSHER DETAILS
Crusher shaft Crushing ring
Suez Cement 206

DISCHARGE GRATE
Reduction of
crusher
processed
clinker

• Less rollers
• Reduced wear
• Less driving
Finer material
systems
passage
• Simplified MCC
Coarser material
crushing
Suez Cement 207
INTERMEDIATE COOLER CRUSHER
Suez Cement 208

COOLER AUTOMATION
MEASURING POINTS AND REGULATION LOOPS
TI LI o LIC
PIC
1. Kiln hood M
pressure TI
2. Cooler TI
speed
3. Air temperature
indication
• Secondary air SIC SIC
• Tertiary air
• Exhaust air
TI
4. Cooling air PIC PI
flow control
TI Temperature indication
5. Plates temperature LI Level indication

PI Pressure indication
LIC Level indication + control
indication M
FIC M
FIC
PIC Pressure indication +
control
SIC Speed indication + control
FIC Flow indication + control
Suez Cement 209

CLINKER COOLER CONTROL
• Grate speed
– Controls clinker bed depth
• As pressure decreases, grate speed slows to build up
resistance
• As pressure increases, grate speed increases to reduce
resistance
– 1st drive controlled off 2nd compartment undergrate pressure
– 2nd drive controlled off lead compartment undergrate pressure or
set to ratio of 1st drive
– Affected by:
• Clinker granulometry
• Fan settings
• Kiln stability
• Hood pressure
– -3 to -6 mmWG [-0.10 to -0.25 inWG]
Suez Cement 210

CLINKER COOLER PARAMETERS
For the proper operation of a clinker cooler it is necessary that it is correctly
sized. The main two parameters to be checked are:
Grate size (m2):

The grate surface should be calculated depending on the clinker production,
through a parameter called specific load charge, defined as:
clinker production
specific load (tpd/m2) =
cooler surface
Typically a grate should be in the interval 35-45 tpd/m2, even if new concept
cooler can reach higher values (normally up to 55 tpd/m2)
Fans total installed capacity (Nm3/kg cli)

The total capacity must be enough to guarantee at least the proper amount of
cooling air (1.8-2.2 Nm3/kg cli) at the maximum capacity of the kiln.
Typically the installed capacity of a cooler is around 2.7 Nm3/kg cli (calculated
at the kiln design clinker capacity)
Suez Cement 211

CLINKER COOLER EFFICIENCY
It is the percentage of heat coming to the cooler which can be recovered for the kiln as
secondary and tertiary air. It can be obtained by a cooler heat balance:
Cooler Heat Balance

INLETS OUTLETS
- clinker at kiln exit (T =1300-1450°C) - clinker at the cooler exit (T = 100-250°C)
- cooling air (ambient T) - exhaust air
- heat losses from cooler walls
- secondary/tertiary air (calc. per difference)
EFFICIENCY (conv. def.) = secondary + tertiary air heat / clinker (from kiln) heat
A cooler efficiency can be generally defined good when it is higher than 60% (last
generation cooler can reach efficiencies up to 70-75%)
A proper running of the cooler is very important to reduce kiln heat consumption and
guarantee a good quality of clinker.
Suez Cement 212

COMBUSTION
& BURNERS
Suez Cement 213

COMBUSTION
Combustion or burning is an exothermic reaction between a
substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidizer), usually O2, to
release heat. In a complete combustion reaction, a compound
reacts with an oxidizing element, and the products are
compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing
element.
Activation energy
fuels comburent
Suez Cement 214

FUELS
COAL PET-COKE FUEL OIL GAS
C % 70 - 73 86 - 88 85 - 86 70 -72
H % 4 - 4.5 3.2 - 3.7 11 21 - 23
N % 1.3 - 1.6 1,3 - 1.7 0.5 2-5
S % 0,4 - 1 4-6 1-3 0
ASH % 13 - 16 <1 0 0
NCV kcal/kg 6200 - 6500 8000 - 8300 9600 11500-12000
Comb. air Nm3/kg 7.1 - 7.5 8.6 - 9 10.7 12.1 - 12.4

Nm3/Mcal av 1.15 av 1.1 av 1.1 1 - 1.1
Suez Cement 215

COMBUSTION REACTIONS
Reagents Products Enthalpy
C + O2 CO2 7.838 kcal/kg C
C + 1/2 O2 CO 2.201 kcal/kg C
CO + 1/2 O2 CO2 2.415 kcal/kg CO
H2 + 1/2 O2 H2 O 28.670 kcal/kg H
S + O2 SO2 2.217 kcal/kg S
Suez Cement 216

LIQUID FUEL COMBUSTION
Liquid fuel combustion takes place in gaseous phase after

fuel vaporization.
In order to help vaporization and mixing with air, liquid fuels
are pulverized in very fine particles (about 10-150 mm).
There are two different kind of pulverization:

- One-phase
- Two-phase (using an auxiliary fluid like steam)
Suez Cement 217

FINENESS INFLUENCE
Coal particles size has a major 106
influence on the quality of

combustion.
Combustion time [msec]

Usually coal particle diameter
is set between 1 and 100 mm. 103 Operation
range
In these conditions combustion
time is about 1 second.
10-1
10-3 10-1 10 102 104
Particle size [microns]
Since kiln gases residence time is about 5 sec, if oxidant condition are
respected, unburnt problems should not occur.
Suez Cement 218

HEAT CALORIFIC VALUE
It represents the amount of energy coming from fuel combustion.

It is expressed in kcal/kg or kJ/kg of fuel.
Two different kinds of calorific value can be distinguished:
HCV (PCS) = higher calorific value (H2O considered as liquid)

LCV (PCI) = lower calorific value (H2O considered as steam)
LCV = HCV - (%H2O + %H x 9) x 597/100 kcal/kg
Suez Cement 219

THEORETICAL COMBUSTION AIR
it is defined as the amount of air necessary to complete

combustion of a fuel, which mean transformation of C, H, S
in the compounds CO2, H2O, SO2, following the reactions:
C + O2  CO2
2 H + 1/2 O2  H2O
S + O2  SO2
O2 stoich. = 32/12 x C + 16/2 x H + 32/32 x S - O2

Theoretical Air = O2 stoich.x 100 / 23 x 0,773
Suez Cement 220

EXCESS AIR
The burning process has to occur in an oxidant atmosphere.
Therefore it is necessary for comburent air to be higher than
stoichiometric value.
The excess of air is calculated starting from gas analysis at kiln

exit. From Oxygen and mass balance at kiln exit:
Stech.air + CO2 dec. + Excess air = Kiln exit gas (Mass

balance)
Excess air x 20,9 = Kiln exit gas x O2 kiln (Oxygen balance)
And therefore:
Excess air [Nm3/h] = Kiln exit gas x %O2 kiln /(20,9 - %O2 kiln)
Suez Cement 221

EXCESS AIR DIAGRAM
2000
1800
Flame Temperature (°C)
1600
1400
1200
1000
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Air (% of stoichiom.)
The amount of combustion air has a relevant influence on the flame

temperature.
It is interesting to notice that the lowering of flame temperature is faster
in reducing atmosphere (air < stoich.) than in excess of air (air > stoich.)
Suez Cement 222
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
Gaseous combustion products are calculated (in Nm3/kg fuel)

using these formula, depending on the stoichiometric ratio
between the fuel components and the products of complete
combustion of those components:
CO2 = 44/12 x C x 22,4/44

H2O = (18/2 x H + Moist.) x 22,4/18
SO2 = 64/32 x S x 22,4/64
N2 = N x 22,4/28 + N (theoretical air)
where C, H, S, N represent mass percentages of Carbon,

Hydrogen, Sulphur and Nitrogen in fuel.
Suez Cement 223

FUEL COMPARISON
The following table shows LCV and combustion theoretical

gas for different kind of fuels. It is interesting to notice that,
decreasing the C/H mass ratio, both parameters LCV and gas
decrease keeping an almost constant ratio.
Fuel C/H LCV Theor. gas Gas/LCV Ratio

Mcal/kg Nm3/kg Nm3/Mcal
Gas 3 11,87 13,11 1,104

Propane 4,8 11,01 11,87 1,078
Heavy oil BTZ 7,3 9,7 10,9 1,124
Heavy oil ordinary 8,25 9,55 10,55 1,105
Coal 14,35 7,7 8,08 1,049
Suez Cement 224

TYPICAL SECONDARY FUELS
Sewage
Petcoke Tyres Fluff RDF
sludge
Animal meal
Moisture [%] 0.11 1.00 17.80 6.60 3.40

Volatiles [%] 10.90 61.00 65.00 45.30 68.70
Hardgrove [°H] 50
Cal. Value Hu [kJ/kg] 34830 29480 14650 9849 19990
Ash [% wf.] 1.28 7.50 17.69 46.20 20.50
Carbon [% wf.] 86.36 81.00 53.08 26.60 43.80
Hydrogen [% wf.] 3.49 6.70 7.26 4.93 5.30
Oxigen [% wf.] 1.85 3.00 19.50 16.00 16.90
Nitrogen [% wf.] 1.61 0.30 0.47 5.73 8.90
Chloride [% wf.] 0.01 0.10 1.20 0.05 0.60
Sulphur [% wf.] 5.40 1.70 0.80 0.46 0.50
P2O5 [% wf.] < 10,0 < 5,0
Hg [ppm] < 0,01 < 0,01 < 1,0 < 5,0 < 0,1
Cd + Tl [ppm] < 10,0 < 20,0 < 20,0 <10,0 < 10,0
S(Sb, As, Pb, Cr, [ppm] < 3000 < 2000 < 2000 < 5000 < 1000
Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, V)
Suez Cement 225

OVERVIEW OF CHARACTERISITICS
OF VARIOUS SECONDARY FUELS
ge
ud
l
ea
sl
ite
m
F
ip
e
e
D
c
ch
al
ok
ag
ra
im
ff -
th
tc
l
w
re
a
pe
an
an
flu
co
se
ty
Heat value
Preparation
Handling
Chlorine Input
Sulfur Input
NOx reduction potential
Fuel costs
positive indifferent negative
Suez Cement 226

BURNER GEOMETRY
Fuel oil gun
Radial air
Solid fuel
Axial air
Until some years ago this type of burner represented the state of the
art. The primary air is divided into a swirl and an axial component,
whose relative flow rates allow to modify the flame shape. They can
be adjusted via damper. The coal stream was designed for low
velocity and high coal concentration, which should allow to control
the velocity of formation of NOx.
Unfortunately the position of coal, inside two air flows, with high swirl
angles, sent radial air in the fuel, reducing De-NOx effect.
Suez Cement 227

BURNER GEOMETRY
The burner includes axial, swirl, core primary air circuits and solid
fuel circuit. The relative position of each pipe is adjustable during
burner operation, so as to be able to modify the tip flow rate of
each stream and hence enable flame shaping to suit the kiln.
Radial and axial air are in this case external to fuel, allowing a
good control of the flame and NOx formation, without involving fuel
since the first moment.
Suez Cement 228

BURNER GEOMETRY ROTAFLAM BURNER
Suez Cement 229

BURNER GEOMETRY ROTAFLAM BURNER
Suez Cement 230

BURNER (PILLARD ROTAFLAM)
Suez Cement 231

OIL GUNS WITH ATOMIZERS
Suez Cement 232

PRIMARY AIR FLAME MOMENTUM
It is defined as the product of the primary air flow (indicated as % of stoichiometric air )
multiplied by the injection velocity.
Desired values for this parameters are around 1500-1600 %m/s; below this values,
consequences are too long flame, high back end temperature, low crust formation and
cold burning zone.
A higher value of injection velocity allows to reduce primary air flow keeping the same
flame stability.
The burner in a rotary kiln works as an injector, with the purpose to draw secondary air
coming from the cooler into the flame in order to make the fuel burn as narrow as
possible to the center line of the kiln
The high primary air axial momentum at the tip outlet has two purposes:
•Drawing in and progressively mixing the secondary air into the flame
This effect is controlled and opti-

mized by an adjustable arrange-
ment of slots and annular cross
sections at the burner axial tip.
• Keeping the flame diameter under control.
Suez Cement 233

FLAME ADJUSTMENTS (PILLARD MANUAL)
Suez Cement 234

BURNER GUIDELINES – AXIAL AIR
Axial air is the most important air circuit. It is fundamental to

define and keep stable the flame shape, otherwise (if the axial
air is too low) there is a high risk for the flame to lose its
shape and become larger, with possible negative effects or
the kiln refractory.
Pillard burners equip this circuit with outlet slots creating
separated air jets and an extended hot tube promoting a bowl
effect (to guarantee a secondary air retarded inlet inside the
flame). Both these solutions influence the NOx formation in
the first part of the flame. Axial burner tip and the relative
operating conditions must be carefully designed in order to
avoid wear problems enhanced by the fly clinker dust.
Suez Cement 235

BURNER GUIDELINES – RADIAL AIR
Swirl level is a parameter No swirl

deeply affecting the flame
and the combustion. The big
difference between a mono
tube and a multi-circuit burner
Regular swirl
is evident so as for the swirler
position. It is a good tool for
flame and coating control but
it is often misused.
Operators have opposing view High swirl
On appropriate flame shape
And they make too many or too
frequent hurtful adjustments.
Suez Cement 236

BURNER GUIDELINES – RADIAL AIR
A frequent measure used by many kiln operators in case of

unburnt material is to concentrate the flame as much as
possible by increasing the radial air.
This option, even if normally can be efficient for this problem, is

normally not suggested, and in any case must be done with
extreme care, because it can lead to huge problems to kiln
refractory lining.
A very large flame can arrive very close to the kiln walls,
“eating” the crust and then exposing the refractory to a
constant thermal action, which can consume quckly bricks.
Suez Cement 237

BYPASS
Suez Cement 238

MINOR ELEMENTS
A few elements occurring in small quantity in the raw materials can have a
major influence on the cement burning process, creating build-ups in kiln
and preheater zone, and in cement physical and mechanical characteristics.
This elements normally come from:
Alkalies (Na,K) Raw meal

CaCl
Chlorine --
S Conventional Fuels
Sulphur Alternative Fuels
Suez Cement 239

MINOR ELEMENTS INTERACTIONS
Volatility and effects
Volatility Effect
CHLORINE
Alkaline Cycle
High
Chlorides
ALKALIES
Alkaline Low Clinker solid phase

Sulphates
SULPHUR
Calcium
High Cycle
Sulphates
CALCIUM
Suez Cement 240

VAPOUR PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
Chlorides: they vaporize in burning
zone and condense in colder parts
760 (riser duct) creating cycles
VAPOUR PRESSURE (mmHg)
700 NaOH KCl
600
500 KOH NaCl

Carbonates:
400 they vaporize
already at low
300 temperatures Sulphates: their
Na2CO3 Na2SO4 vapour pressures
200
are low, so they
100 normally don’t
K2CO3 K2SO4
vaporize and leave
the kiln with clinker
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

TEMPERATURE (°C)
Suez Cement 241

RECIRCULATION SCHEME
1) Circulating elements inlet: 6) Calcium Sulphates
- alkalies (M): raw meal, alternative fuels (most of them) and
- Chlorine: raw meal (CaCl2), altern. fuels alkaline sulphates (in part)
8) Low - Sulphur: fuels, raw meal (sometimes) dissociate in burning
quantities of zone forming SO2 which
chlorides and 7) Circulating elements condense closing comes back with gas flow
alkalies leave the cycle when, passing through kiln zones towards the preheater with
the kiln after at lower temperatures, cool down to their the volatilized compounds
condensating on condensation temperature.
dust SO2
9) A part of SO2
leaves the kiln M2SO4 SO2
M2CO3 MCl
with stack gas CaSO4
2) Alkalies react with CO2
forming carbonates. 4) Around the kiln inlet Sulphur reacts with alkalies
to form alkaline sulphates and with Calcium Oxides M2SO4
3) Interactions between circulating and Carbonates to form Calcium sulphates.
elements at kiln inlet:
Sulphur+alkalies alkaline sulphates 5) Thermostable compounds, with higher volatilization
Chlorine+alkalies alkaine chlorides temperature
(in particular alkaline sulphates), leave the kiln inside the clinker.
Suez Cement 242

INITIAL CONCENTRATION
AND SATURATION LEVELS
L2
Concentration
L2 - L 1
…leads to a huge variation
L1 of saturation level
Hot meal
>>
C2
Raw meal C1 C2 - C1
A small variation of
raw meal concentration… Time
Suez Cement 243

CHLORE/SULPHUR IN HOT MEAL
The contemporary presence of Chlorine and Sulphur can lead to heavy
problems to kiln normal operations.
4
Heavy coatings
Cl (%)
1 Acceptable
coatings
Minor
0 coatings
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
SO3 (%)
Suez Cement 244
EFFECTS OF MINOR ELEMENTS RECIRCULATION
1) Effects on kiln running
2) Effects on cement quality
3) Effects on plant
Suez Cement 245

EFFECTS ON CEMENT QUALITY
Alkalies REACTIONS ALKALIES/AGGREGATE (Na2O, K2O) EXPANSION
Sulphur SULPHATIC EXPANSION (Na2SO4, K2SO4)
Chlorine CORROSION OF CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
Suez Cement 246

BYPASS SYSTEMS
The aim of a bypass installation is to extract from the system a part of gas
in the zone where it is richer in recirculating elements in gaseous phase.
Then this elements are condensed, becoming dust which is collected by

filters and removed from the system
A bypass installation takes out of the system some heat with hot gas,
leading to a specific heat consumption increase.
It also reduce kiln productivity, taking out some material.
It is therefore important to manage this installation in a proper way.
Suez Cement 247

CHLORINE/ SULPHUR IN HOT MEAL
4
Situation without bypass

3
Cl [%]
Heavy build-ups
2
Acceptable
build-ups
1
Situation with bypass
Minor
build-ups
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
SO3 [%]
Suez Cement 248
CONVENTIONAL BYPASS FLOW SHEET
Gas extraction: in riser duct, above kiln inlet (less dusty area)
Quenching chamber: mixing kiln gas with air, as near as possible to the
extraction point, to condensate acid salts
Cooling unit: to reduce gas temperature (normally cooling tower with water)
Dedusting unit: Cyclones, ESP, bag filters (preferred)
Dust handling: storage, dosing to cement mills, other use
Suez Cement 249

BYPASS RATE PER ELEMENT TYPE
Bypass rate: it‘s the percentage of kiln gas taken out with the bypass
Typical values of bypass rate are:
Chloride by-pass: 3 - 10 [%]

Bypass Sulphur by-pass: 20 - 100 [%]
Alkali by-pass: 20 - 50 [%]:
Suez Cement 250

CHLORE AND BYPASS DUST FINENESS
90% of Chlorine has fineness
smaller than 10 mm.
In the same fraction (0-10

mm) there is around 30%
of total bypass dust.
It is possible therefore to
differentiate by separating
with a cyclone the coarser
part (very low in Cl) and
sending it back to the kiln,
and extracting only
successively the finer part
(richer in Cl) in the filter.
Suez Cement 251

BYPASS SYSTEM WITH PRELIMINARY CYCLONE
This kind of installation separates the coarse part in a first cyclone and send
it back to the kiln, obtaining good efficiency in Chloride removal with lower
amounts of extracted bypass dust
Suez Cement 252

FANS
Suez Cement 253

FANS
Where are fans located in the plant?
Coal mill
filter
Crushing Raw
Quarry Kiln raw mill meal
bag filter silo
Raw
Raw mat. Raw mat. meal
storage storage kiln
Raw mill feeding
exhauster
Additives
reception Coal
silo
Coal
Booster fan mill
To burner
Heat
exchanger
Cooler filter Cyclone
Cooling
Raw mill tower
Kiln ID fan
Kiln
Trucks Clinker storage

Cement Cement mill filter
loading
silo
Cement mill
exhauster
Cement mill
Cement packing
additive
Process fans
Cement mill
Not-Process fans
Suez Cement
FANS
All the gas flows inside preheater, kiln and cooler (as well as the RM
department) are draught through fans, which also have the task to keep the
entire installation under pressure, to avoid hot material and gas spillage.
They can be distinguished from compressors by:
• Pressure generated
– Fans < 1 bar [15 psig]
– Compressors > 1 bar [15 psig]
• Compression ratio (or density change)
– Fans < 1.1 (or 7%)
– Compressors > 1.1 (or 7%)
Suez Cement 255

FAN COMPONENTS
1. Fan outlet
2. Fan housing
3. Fan inlet
4. Impeller
5. Blade
6. Access door
7. Cooling disc
8. Bearing
9. Shaft guard
10. Fixed bearing
11. Fastening frame
12. Shaft
13. Foundation
Suez Cement
FAN CONTROL
The fans can control:

- Flow
- System pressure (a higher draught increases negative pressure)
The variations of flow can be done through:

- Variable frequency speed drives (through current variation)
- Vanes, dampers, valves (with motor always at 100%)
The first system is of course more convenient form energy point of view, since
the power absorbed by the fan is changing with the requested flow, while in
the second case the power is always the maximum, and the dampers
reduce the draught effect.
Suez Cement 257

FAN CONTROL
COMPARISON OF FAN CONTROL SYSTEM
100
90
80
70
Absorbed power (%)
60
l
n tro
50 o
erc
p
m r
40 Da pe
d am
er
uv l
et
lo tro
Inl c on
30 ne
ia l va
d
Ra
20
10
ed
riab le spe
Va
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flow (%)
Suez Cement 258

FAN EFFICIENCY
It’s a parameter used to have a reference about the performance of a fan.
Flow (m /s) x DP (mmWG)

h =
3
102 x Power (kW)

Flow: it is considered in actual conditions (effective T and P)
DP: it’s the difference in static pressure between fan inlet and outlet. It must be
measured immediately before and after the fan, not to be influenced by dampers
or other devices
Power: it is the power at the shaft of the fan. If the motor power is available, the
power at the shaft can be calculated taking in account motor efficiency and
transmission efficiency, both normally around 0.98
Fan efficiency depends on several parameters, like blade shape, gas conditions,
dust, etc…
Normally a fan efficiency can be considered sufficient if it is above 60%.
Suez Cement 259

FAN CURVES
They are indicating the performance of fans and the correlations between
different parameters, such as pressure, flow, speed and power absorbed.
Suez Cement 260

TRANSPORTS
Suez Cement 261

BELT CONVEYOR
Normally not frequent in burning installation due to temperature problems,
they can be used for the transport of big alternative fuels, such as tyres.
Suez Cement 262

BELT CONVEYOR
Suez Cement 263

SCREW CONVEYOR
An endless screw is moving the material forward.
Since they are closed, they represent a
good device for transport of dusty
materials. They are used for
filters/CT . discharge or for light
alternative fuels . (such as
agriculture wastes)
Particular attention must be taken in

case of long or hard material (ex. uncut
rice straws) because they can block the
movement and cause deformations.
Suez Cement 264

SCREW CONVEYOR
Suez Cement 265

APRON FEEDER
Very resistant, it is normally used to feed the primary limestone crusher.
Metallic transport are also often used for hot clinker at the cooler exit.
Suez Cement 266

DRAG CHAIN
Good device to manage hot material, it is often used for the first
transportation of hot clinker.
Suez Cement 267

AIRSLIDES
A fabric layer divides the slide in two parts: in the lower one air is blown,
which, passing through the fabric, keeps the material suspended, allowing it
to move in the inclined duct.
Very important to check that

no air is flowing out, or the
efficiency of transport will be
dramatically reduced.
Suez Cement 268

AIRSLIDES
Suez Cement 269

VOLUMETRIC FEEDER (ROTARY VALVE)
It allows the passage of material without letting air pass through.
Regulating the velocity of rotation it can guarantee a volumetric
feeding
Suez Cement 270

BUCKET ELEVATOR
Useful for vertical transport of dusty materials. Often used for kiln feed
Suez Cement 271

AIRLIFT
Pneumatic system used for vertical transports. Often used for the kiln feed.
If not dedusted, it represents a source of false air, sometimes relevant,
limiting the ID fan draught.
From
dedicated
compressors
To kiln
Suez Cement 272

AIRLIFT DEDUSTING
The installation of a filter

at the top of the duct
allows to separate the
kiln feed from cold air.
The air is sent to the
atmosphere through a
dedicated fan, while the
kiln feed is sent through
an airslide to a rotary
valve, which send the
raw material into the kiln
without allowing passage
of air.
Suez Cement 273

DEDUSTING
Suez Cement 274

GRAVEL BED FILTER
• Cleaning mode
– Dust-laden gases are drawn
into modules
– Coarse particles drop out
– Gases are pulled up thimble
and then through gravel
• Gravel rests on screens
– Clean air passes through
• Back-flush mode
– Isolation damper shuts off gas
flow into module
• 1 module at a time
– Back-flush damper opens
– Rake agitates gravel
• Good for high temperatures (<425°C [800°F])
– Air lifts dust down thimble • Poor dust removal compared with baghouse
Suez Cement
GRAVEL BED FILTER OPERATION
Rake Rake
motor Poppet Poppet motor
valve valve
Dust falls down vortex Dust trapped in gravel
Clean gas Clean gas
To exit
Dust falls down vortex Clean air Dust trapped in gravel
chamber
Clean gas Clean gas
Dust-laden gas Dust-laden gas
Settling chamber Semi-clean gas

Coarse Coarse goes up vortex
material material
drops out drops out
Coarse Coarse
material material
drops out drops out
Backflush Cleaning
Suez Cement 276
GRAVEL BED FILTERS OVERVIEW
Gravel bed filters were used in cement industry specially for dedusting
the exhaust air coming from the clinker cooler grates, since this kind of
filters is very suitable to treat hot and dry gas flows.
The efficiency of these filters is acceptable if they are in a good
mechanical condition, but their reliability is insufficient to guarantee good
operation for long time; consequently maintenance costs is very high.
Anyway their efficiency are insufficient to comply with the Emission

Normative of today.
Suez Cement 277

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR (EP)
Gas distribution
Hammers
screen
Gas inlet
Discharge
bin
A: Emitting electrodes
B: Collecting plates
C: Supporting insulators Electrodes Collecting plates
Suez Cement 278

EP PRINCIPLE
The electrostatic precipitator utilizes
electrostatic forces to separate dust
particles from the gas to be cleaned.
The gas enters in a chamber containing
“curtains” of vertical steel plates
(Collecting Electrodes) that divide the
chamber into a number of parallel gas
passages.
A frame with emitting electrodes
(Stretched wires or rigid pipes with pins)
is located within each passage. All the
frames are linked to each other to form
a rigid framework.
The rigid framework is held in place by A: Emitting electrodes
B: Collecting plates
support insulators. C: Supporting insulators
A high voltage direct current rectifier

(from 50 to120 kV) negative voltage is
connected between the framework and
the ground.
Suez Cement 279

EP PRINCIPLE
Collecting plates Emitting (discharging)
electrodes
Gas
passages
A strong electrical fields is created between The electrical fields becomes stronger near the corners or
Emitting Electrodes and Collecting Plates the pins of the Emitting Electrodes so that an electrical
discharge – “The Corona Discharge” – develops.
The electrical force on each particle becomes
much greater than the gravitational force and A large quantity of ions are formed in the gas by the
the speed of migration towards the Collecting Corona Discharge effect: the positive ones are
Plates is much greater than the speed of immediately actracted towards the negative electrodes,
sedimentation in free fall. The dust is but however the negative ions have to pass through the
collected on the Plates that are periodically gas channel to reach the positive collecting plates.
shaked by hammers. The dust slides into a
dust hopper. The negative ions collide with and adere to the particles
that become electrically charged and migrate in the same
direction as the ions.
Suez Cement 280

BAG FILTER
Roof doors for bags

replacement
Cleaning
Gas exit system
Plenum (“clean”
chamber)
Fliter Bags
Gas inlet
Body (
“dirty” Gas falldown
chamber) (Dedusting
chamber)
Discharge
bin
Dust discharge
Suez Cement 281

BAG FILTER FOR GENERAL APPLICATION
(NOT PROCESS INSTALLATION)
Roof doors for bags
replacement
Cleaning
Outlet system
Plenum (Clean gas

Impact
chamber)
screen
Bags
Inlet
Body (dirty
chamber) Drop box
(settling
chamber)
Baffles
Hopper
Dust discharge
DROP BOX INLET SIDE INLET WITH HOPPER INLET

IMPACT SCREEN (NOT RECOMMENDED)
Suez Cement 282

PROCESS BAG FILTER – DOUBLE TYPE
COMPARTMENTS AND CLEANING SYSTEM
Outlet Outlet Outlet Outlet
Plenum (Clean gas

chamber) walk-in
type
Cleaning
Inlet Inlet
system
channel channel
Bags
Body (dirty
chamber)
Hopper Dust discharge Dust discharge
Dust discharge Dust discharge Dust discharge Dust discharge

No compartments Compartments
On-line cleaning (Off-line cleaning optional)
Suez Cement 283

PROCESS DEDUSTING
THE KILN AND RAW MILL BAG FILTER OF MALAGA
The kiln filter
(small filter)
The kiln and raw mill

Bag filter components:
filter (large filter)
• Inlet and outlet hopper
Clean gas collecting the dust that falls
chamber
from the gas.
• Inlet manifold distributing
the dirty gas into the filter
Body
• Filter body (dirty chamber)
Air tanks (cleaning system)
Bags containing the bags
• Bags and cleaning system
Inlet manifold • Clean gas chamber
Hoppers
sending the clean gas to
the outlet manifold
Suez Cement 284

BAGS TYPES
Suez Cement 285

FILTERS COMPARISON
Suez Cement 286

HEAT EXCHANGERS
Suez Cement 287

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS
FOREWORD Inlet nozzle
In cement plants air cooled heat

exchangers are commonly Tube bundles
installed especially on the
exhaust air coming form the
Cooling air axial fans
clinker cooling grate, just before
the bag filters.
The aim is to cool down the
exhaust air to allow the use of
common and cheaper bags
(Polyester 130°C max continuous
temperature) and reduce the filter
size.
There are also few installations
on the exhaust gas coming from
Hopper
preheater towers, but this Outlet
application is not much suitable
for this type of heat exchanger
due to dust and gas physical and
chemical characteristics.
Suez Cement 288

DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR TUBES HEAT
EXCHANGERS ON CLINKER COOLER APPLICATION
INLET 18 ÷ 22 m/s
HOT AIR VELOCITY INSIDE THE TUBES
OUTLET 10 ÷ 12 m/s
The highest the speed the highest is the transfert coefficient
value. Flow velocity inside the tube must be selected taking
into account wear phenomena caused by abrasive clinker
dust.
COOLING AIR VELOCITY OUTSIDE THE 6 ÷ 8 m/s average

TUBES value
This parameter has influence on the design pressure of the
cooling fans. Low pressure allows the use of axial fans
instead of centrifugal ones. Low pressure allows also to
keep noise at a low level during operation.
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT 18 ÷ 20 W/m2°C
These walues can be obtained according to the above

velocities and according to the mechanical features
previously discussed.
Suez Cement 289

EVAPORATIVE CONDITIONING TOWER
Inlet cone Baffles

FOREWORD (optional)
In cement plants, evaporative

conditioning towes (ECT) are installed
before electrostatic precipitatos or bag
filters.
Water spraying
system
Their task is to cool down hot gas or hot
air flows in order to reach the right
operating temperature for a bag filter or Tower shell
change the gas electrical characteristics
to improve electrostatic precipitators
Hopper
efficiency. In this last case, besides the (gas outlet)
cooling the scope is also to increase the
water content in the gas to further reduce
resistivity.
Reversible
screw conveyor
Suez Cement 290

OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND CONTROL SYSTEM
The ECT operation principle is based on

the use of the gas stream sensible heat
for evaporating water.
Gas distribution at injectors level is very

important for ECT operation
The water injection is controlled

according to the ECT outlet temperature
set point
A different type of control is possible,

according to the enthalpy of the gas
stream at ECT inlet
Suez Cement 291

ECT SIZING
The water requirement is given by the enthalpy of the gas stream related to the
desired DT divided for the water evaporative heat coefficient
The ECT size, in terms of diameter and evaporative (useful) height, is fixed
according to the following parameters:
AVERAGE GAS VELOCITY → 3,5 ÷ 4,5 m/s
RESIDENCE TIME → 7 s MINIMUM
Suez Cement 292

WATER SPRAYING SYSTEMS
Water is injected by using
spraying lances of different
TYPICAL INJECTORS ARRANGEMENT
lengths, in order to cover the
whole ECT cross area without
touchin the internal walls and
avoiding water injectors spraying
cones to overlap.
If water touches the walls, it can
be no more evaporated and
cause mud in the ECT bottom
If the injectors spraying cones
overlap, water droplets become overlapping
bigger and require higher

residence time for the complete
evaporation. The result is again
mud in the ECT bottom.
Two different types of water
spraying system are available:
 SPILL BACK SYSTEM
 TWO PHASE INJECTION SYSTEM
Suez Cement 293

BASIC PRINCIPLES
OF KILN OPERATION
Suez Cement 294

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF KILN OPERATION
It is really important to have a kiln running in the
most possible stable way
A stable running allows to:
Form a stable coating inside the kiln

Preserve kiln refractory bricks
Reduce thermal and mechanical stress on machines
Avoid kiln ring formation and cyclone clogging
Increase kiln working time
Increase monthly average clinker production
Help to obtain a good combustion
Reduce heat consumption
Improve clinker quality
Suez Cement 295

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF KILN OPERATION
In order to burn raw material in the most stable way, reducing the risks of
thermal shocks on clinker and equipments, a constant ratio should be kept
between the 4 main parameters of the kiln:
1) Kiln feed: Material introduced in the kiln (to be transformed into clinker)
- an increase reduce temperature
- a reduction increase temperature
2) Fuel: From the burners, provide heat to produce clinker
- an increase raises temperature
- a reduction lowers temperature and can affect clinker quality
3) Draught: From ID fan, guarantee O2 for combustion and help the lifting up
of material, thus the heat exchange
- an increase help combustion but can reduce temperature
- a reduction can affect combustion, temperature and quality
4) Kiln speed: Establish the amount of material inside the rotary kiln
- an increase raises temperature but can affect clinker quality
- a reduction lowers temperature, but helps heat transfer
Suez Cement 296

BASICS PRINCIPLE OF KILN OPERATION
The normal sequence of operation to increase kiln production should be:
DRAUGHT
Increasing the fan speed, the air inside the kiln raises, making more Oxygen
available for combustion; Temperature slightly decreases for gas dilution
FUEL
More Oxygen allows to increase the fuel without risking of CO formation
producing more heat. Temperature increases, while Oxygen decreases
(used by the fuel for the combustion)
KILN FEED
The excess of heat can be used to burn new material, without risking to
affect the quality of clinker produced. Temperature lowers, since part of
the heat is consumed for raw material transformations
KILN SPEED
Increasing the kiln speed keeps constant the filling ratio (percentage of
kiln volume filled with material) allowing to guarantee the best burning
performance for the material. Temperature slightly increases.
Suez Cement 297

COOLER EFFICIENCY
The cooler is a very important machine because it has a double function:
1) Reduce clinker temperature:
- a very fast cooling help to keep a good quality of clinker
- low clinker temperatures prevent problems downwards (clinker transport, storage)
2) Recover heat for kiln:
- heat exchanged from air with clinker can reduce fuel consuption
To obtain this effects it is necessary to have:
- sufficient clinker bed height especially in the very first part of the cooler
Low High
layer layer
- correct air total flow rate and ripartition in cooler chambers

Normally total air flow rate must change depending on clinker production (keeping a
constant value of 1.8-2.2 Nm3/kg clk). This flow rate must be distributed in proper way
to obtain high secondary air and low clinker and exhaust air temperature
If cooling air is too much in the first part of
the cooler (air going back to kiln as
secondary and tertiary air), its temperature
will be lower, leading to problems for fuel
combustion
Suez Cement 298

PREHEATER EXIT GAS HEAT
In order to reduce the heat lost with preheater exit gas, temperature or flow rate
must be kept as low as possible
Flow rate can be reduced minimizing the value of preheater exit Oxygen.
The best value of Oxygen is the lowest one obtainable without presence of CO
It is also extremely important to reduce as much as possible inleaking air, in order
to guarantee the correct draught capacity of the ID fan from the kiln, providing
Oxygen necessary for the combustion at the burners
Other reasons why it is important to minimize SP gas flow rate are reduction of ID
fan electrical consumption, reduction of preheater pressure drop (and therefore
reduction of SP dust production), reduction of heavy crust formation in riser duct
and reduction of water injected in conditioning towers
Related issues:
Unburnt fuel – CO formation
Preheater inleaking air
Suez Cement 299

PREHEATER INLEAKING AIR
The ID fan is normally design to draught a
sufficient secondary and tertiary air flow
rate to guarantee sufficient Oxygen for
main and auxiliary combustion.
Total
fan
draught
Suez Cement 300

PREHEATER INLEAKING AIR
The ID fan is normally design to draught a
sufficient secondary and tertiary air flow
rate to guarantee sufficient Oxygen for
O2 main and auxiliary combustion.
Total
If inleaking air flow rate becomes higher,
fan
the fan is no more able to draught enough
draught
air from kiln hood and through kiln.
O2 The Oxygen value at kiln exit and calciner
exit will decrease, becoming not sufficient
to complete fuel combustion (therefore CO
CO will appear)
At the same time Oxygen at preheater exit
will increase due to higher amount of air
not used for combustion.
O2
CO
Suez Cement 301

UNBURNT FUEL – CO FORMATION
Typically combustion occurs in presence of fuel and Oxygen producing CO2.
When Oxygen is not sufficient to burn all the fuel, incomplete combustion
occurs. Carbon (main burnable component of fuel) burns only partially
forming CO instead of CO2 (as in usual combustion)
Typical indicators of this are presence of CO or CH4 at gas analyzers after
combustion zones.
O2 CO2 O2
C CO C+O2= CO2 + 7838 kcal/kg C
C 2
C C C+1/2 O2 = CO + 2201 Kcal/kg C
CO O2
½O CO2
2
This incomplete combustion generates a loss of heat around 4-5 kcal/kg
clk for each 0.1% of CO
Moreover if CO finds successively some other Oxygen it can react to CO 2
in presence of sparks (like in EP filters) producing heat and EP explosions.
CO+1/2 O2 = CO2
CO reduction is therefore important, both for performance (heat
consumption reduction) and safety reasons (EP explosion prevention)
Suez Cement 302

PREHEATER/BYPASS DUST
Preheater Dust
The effect of preheater dust is not so evident in terms of heat consumption
Normally the heat consumption increase due to dust is around 2 kcal/kg clk for
each 1% of dust (referred to raw feed)
On the other side, the effect of preheater dust can be very dangerous on
downwards machines, i.e. ID fan (problems of wear, disalignment and vibrations),
heat exchangers and filters
Bypass Dust
Managing Bypass is very important to prevent accumulation of substances
(Chlore, alkalies and Sulphur) leading to crust formation and cyclone cloggings.
It is however necessary not to exceed bypass fan draught, since taking out hot
gas means a loss of heat (and therefore an increase of kiln heat consumption)
Every percent of bypass ratio (% gas on total kiln exit gas) leads to a heat loss
of around 3 kcal/kg clk
Suez Cement 303

HEAT BALANCE
Heat balance is a tool to determine the heat flow through any process or system.
HEAT LOSSES
HEAT HEAT
USED PRODUCED
HEAT HEAT
INPUT CHEMICAL
OUTPUT
REACTIONS
PROCESS
Suez Cement 304

HEAT BALANCE
HEAT INLETS (kcal/kg clk) HEAT OUTLETS (kcal/kg clk)
1) Fuels 1) Theoretical heat of formation

• Burners 2) Thermal losses
• Sensible heat 3) Preheater exit gas
2) Raw meal • Sensible heat
• Sensible heat • Vaporization of residual water
4) Clinker at cooler exit
3) Ambient air
. - cooling air • Sensible heat
. - primary air 5) Cooler exhaust air
. - false air • Sensible heat
6) Dust (bypass + CT + filters)
• Sensible heat
• Sensible heat
7) Unburnt fuel (CO)
TOTAL INLETS TOTAL OUTLETS
Suez Cement 305

HEAT OUTPUTS ANALYSIS
Since the global heat must be balanced, it is important to try to reduce the heat
outputs in order to save fuel and thus money.
Let’s check heat outputs: Where can CCR operators act?
It depends only on raw meal chemical composition; it is not

1) Theoretical heat of formation possible to reduce it
Can be reduced replacing refractory bricks, but it has to be

2) Thermal losses evaluated if it is economically convenient
Can be lowered reducing gas flow and temperature (take care
3) Preheater exit gas to unburnt formation and further use of gas)
Can be reduced improving cooler efficiency to reduce clinker

4) Clinker at cooler exit temperature (also good effects on transports and storage)
Can be reduced improving cooler efficiency to reduce exhaust
5) Cooler exhaust air air temperature (considering further use of gas, i.e. coal drying)
Can be lowered improving cyclone separation efficiency (good

6) Dust (cond. tower + filters) effects also on downwards machines)
Must be regulated to prevent accumulation of Chlore, Alkalies

6) Dust (bypass) and Sulphur but not to be excessive (heat taken out of
system)
Must be reduced to avoid heat losses and problems to EP
7) Unburnt fuel filters
Suez Cement 306

QUALITY
Suez Cement 307

THE STARTING MATERIALS
Raw meal
The raw meal is a finely dispersed, multi-phase, multi-component system
which will be transformed into clinker via a series of reactions
taking place between 400 °C and 1450 °C.
The raw materials consists of :
- calcium carriers
- acid oxide carriers
- minor elements
Suez Cement 308

Hydraulic binders
 Silico-calcareous binders
Portland cement
1 450 °C Portland
Limestone + Clay
clinker
Portland clinker Grinding + Gypsum
Portland cement
Suez Cement 309

Calcium carriers
Basic oxide carrier

CaO
NATURAL
NATURAL BY-PRODUCTS
BY-PRODUCTS
CARRIERS •• Industrial scoria (slag)
CARRIERS Industrial scoria (slag)
•• Limestone •• Chemical calcium carbonate
Limestone Chemical calcium carbonate
•• Marble
Marble
•• Chalk
Chalk
•• Marl
Marl
Suez Cement 310

Acid oxide carriers
Acid
Acidoxide
oxidecarriers
carriers
Si0
Si02, ,Al
Al2OO3, ,Fe
Fe2OO3
2 2 3 2 3
NATURAL
NATURAL BY-PRODUCTS
BY-PRODUCTS
CARRIERS •• Fly ash
CARRIERS Fly ash
•• Clays •• Industrial scoria (iron & steel)
Clays Industrial scoria (iron & steel)
•• Schists •• Foundry sands
Schists Foundry sands
•• Marls •• Pyrite ash
Marls Pyrite ash
•• Sandstones •• Milling scales
Sandstones Milling scales
•• Bauxites
Bauxites
•• Sands
Sands
Suez Cement 311

Granulometry and reactivity
From calculations, experience and many tests using standard sieves, the
following particle sizes have been found to be critical for residual free lime
after burning for 30 minutes:
Calcite: + 125 m
Quartz and silicates: + 45 m
It has been found that after burning for 30 minutes at 1400oC, an increase in
the amount of coarse particles results in the following increases in free lime:
+1% calcite + 125m + 0.56% free CaO

+1% quartz + 45m + 0.93% free CaO
Suez Cement 312

CaO
Clinker for
Portland Cement
+ SiO2 + SiO2 + Al203 + Al203 + Fe203
 Main chemical reactions

(CaO)3 SiO2 (CaO)2 SiO2 (CaO)3 Al203 (CaO)4 Al203 Fe203
in the formation of Clinker
OR
+S +S +A +A+ F
C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Suez Cement 313

Clinker
for Portland cement
 Chemical composition
Si02
16 ÷ 26%
CaO Al203
CLINKER
60 ÷ 67 % 4 ÷8%
Fe203
2 ÷5%
Suez Cement 314

Criteria for the chemical evaluation

of raw meals for PTL cement
The modules
Definition
SiO2
SM   24
 Silica modulus Al2O3  Fe2O3
Al2O3
AF   1 .5  3
 Aluminoferric modulus Fe2O3
Suez Cement 315

Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)
A more accurate way to express the capacity of the oxides making up the mix to
bind and give rise to hydraulic compounds, is the lime saturation factor, also
referred to as LSF, the Kalk standard, KS or Kühl depending on the name of the first
scientist to have used it.
The values obtained are based on the following theoretical considerations :
 1 part of SiO2 is combined with 2.8 parts of CaO to form C3S.

 1 part of Al2O3 is combined with 1.65 part of CaO to form C3A.
 C4AF can be considered as C3A + CF therefore 1 part of Fe203 is
combined with 0.3 part of CaO in CF
hence the theoretical formula
Suez Cement 316

Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)
In theory :
100 CaO
LSF or Kalk standard or KS or Kühl KS 
2.8SiO2  1.65 Al2O3  0.35 Fe2O3
In practice, we will choose : 100 CaO

KS 
2.8SiO2  1.18 Al2O3  0.65 Fe2O3
Ks = 100 theoretically corresponds to a clinker composition that contains: C 3S, C3A and C4AF
Ks < 100 theoretically corresponds to a clinker composition that addiitonally contains C 2S.
In practice, we will maintain a KS between 88 and 100. Moreover, the information will be completed
by the values for the silicic and ferric moduli.
Suez Cement 317

Silica Modulus/Ratio (SM/SR)
SiO2
SM (SR) =
(Al2O3 + Fe2O3)
The normally used interval for SM is between 2 and 3.
A value below 2 can lead to easy burning, excess of liquid

phase, attack to bricks, coating washing, balling, hard clinker,
unstable kiln, low heat consumption, low cement strength
A value above 3 can produce hard burning, reduced liquid

phase, high thermal loads, no coating, dusty clinker, high free
lime, unstable kiln high cement strength, slow hardening
cement
Suez Cement 318

Aluminoferric Modulus/Ratio (AM/AR)
Also known as Fundent Module, its formula is
Al2O3
AR (AM) =
Fe2O3
The normally used interval for AM is between 1.3 and 2.5.
A lower value normally causes viscous slag and high early

strengths, while a higher value leads to fluid slag, low early
strengths and low heat of hydration
Suez Cement 319

ELEMENT RAW MIX CLINKER RAW MIX CLINKER RAW MIX CLINKER
L.o.i 35.55 0.4 35.21 0.45 36.5 0.3
Si02 14.12 21.77 14.05 21.88 13 21.0
A1203 3.59 5.81 2.61 4.59 3.1 5.7
Fe203 1.65 2.61 1.83 2.74 1.9 3
Ca0 42.35 65.44 43.3 65.45 42.1 64.9
Mg0 1.05 1.67 1.3 2.17 2 3.1
S03 0.11 0.3 0.27 0.74 0.2 0.6
Na20 0.61 0.85 0.29 0.42 0.1 0.1
K20 0.49 0.58 0.62 0.77 0.4 0.7
free Ca0 1.14 0.9 0.8
LSF 94.29 94 99.17 95.5 102.3 96.0

Ms 2.68 2.58 3.17 3 2.6 2.4
A/F 2.17 2.22 1.43 1.67 1.6 1.9
Costituents calculation : Bogue's formula
C3S 52.5 59.4 58.8
C2S 24.3 19.7 16
C3A 11 7.5 10
C4AF 7.9 8.3 9.1
Suez Cement 320

RAW MEAL
Burnability
The burnability of a raw meal expresses its ability
to transform into clinker when subjected in the
laboratory to a stringently controlled heat
treatment at various temperatures.
Suez Cement 321

RAW MEAL
Burnability - Generalities and correlations
Burnability is evaluated in the Laboratory by means of tests at

temperatures ranging from 1000 °C to 1450 °C which enable
determining the free lime content at 1000 -1100 -1200 - 1300 - 1350
- 1400 - 1450 °C.
The higher the free lime content, particularly at 1450 °C, the more
difficult it is to bake the raw meal.
At the CTG (Guerville) the BI is expressed by :
BI = (CaO1 000 + 2CaO1 100 + 2CaO1 200 + 3CaO1 300 +

4CaO1 350 + 4CaO1 400+ 2CaO1 450)/100
BI = Burnability Index (« aptitude à la cuisson » in French)
Suez Cement 322

RAW MEAL
Burnability Index - BI values in various plants
 3.0
 2.5
 2.0
 1.5
 1.0
Suez Cement 323

RAW MEAL
Burnability
Burnability is dependent upon :
• chemical composition
– it improves with reduction in LSF, MS and AF
– it improves with increase in concentration of K2O, SO3 and

liquid phase
• physical characteristics
– it improves with increase in fineness of the raw meal

– it improves with reduction in % of quartz in > 45 micron fraction
Suez Cement 324

RAW MEAL
Burnability
Changes for improvement of Burnability (= reduction of free CaO)
Suez Cement 325

RAW MEAL
Burnability
Changes for improvement of Burnability (= reduction of free CaO)
Suez Cement 326

RAW MEAL
Homogeneity - Microhomogeneity
While the chemical composition of the raw meal is essential to obtain firstly
the clinker and then a cement with the required properties, the physical
characteristics of the meal are also important for successful burning.
The blend contains various ingredients and different phases and it is

essential that each particle complements the others as much as possible, so
that they combine easily during burning.
Each particle should not only be very similar to the others, but each fraction
of the same size should be of similar composition.
Grinding together materials of different crushability appears to result in a

broad array of different particle sizes, even if we limit the maximum particle
diameter.
Suez Cement 327

RAW MEAL
Micro-homogeneity (or heterogeneity) is generally evaluated based on analysis
of the composition of the following fractions :
Øµm > 200, 120-200, 90-120, 63-90, 32-63, < 32
Heterogeneity index
The heterogeneity index Kst (KS), referred to Kst, is calculated based on
the differences between Kst of the previous seen fractions, and the average
Ks of the mean sample :
Kst =  mean Kst  Kst fraction xP% fraction 

100
The value of the KS index depends on the correlations that exist between the
heterogeneity index, Kst and the burnability of the raw meals (see
classification below).
N.B. : The term « Kst » for standard lime was kept in reference to the work of
I. DREIZEL and H.U. SCHÄFLER, who are the pioneers of micro-homogeneity research.
Suez Cement 328

RAW MEAL
Heterogeneity index Influence on

D Kst
burnability
< 0.5 Good
0.5 3.0 Normal
3.0 6.0 Difficult
> 6.0 Very difficult
Suez Cement 329

RAW MEAL
Examples : Heterogeneity index
Raw meal with good burnability
Sample : Sarche powder Reg. 241 408
Results of analysis
Heterogeneity Index = 0,70
Suez Cement 330

RAW MEAL
Examples : Heterogeneity index
Raw meal with very difficult burnability
Sample : Vibo powder Reg- 1998-
Results of analysis
Index d’hétérogénéité =
11.32
Heterogeneity Index = 11.32
Suez Cement 331

RAW MEAL
Comparison of refractories consumption
HETEROG. Consumption of
refractories
D Kst) g/t
AIRVAULT 1.4 347
BEFFES 1.3 556
BEAUCAIRE 4.5 595
COUVROT 7.9 891
CRUAS 4.5 590
GARGENVILLE 12.7 900
RANVILLE 1.6 432
VILLIEAU 7.1 593
BORGO 20.3 1085
BRONI 2.5 316
CALUSCO 2.7 443
CASTROVILLARI 2.0 480
CATANIA 4.0 583
COLLEFERRO 9.7 1090
MATERA 5.7 590
MONSELICE 1.7 637
PONTASSIEVE 1.3 478
PORTO 1.7 700
REZZATO N. 4.4 452
REZZATO B. 21.2 998
SAMATZAI 7.0 694
SARCHE 0.7 180
TRIESTE 2.0 488
VIBO 5.2 578
Suez Cement 332

CLINKER
Portland clinker is not a well defined chemical product

but a relatively homogeneous blend of different chemical
compounds that can be recognized with a microscopy
analysis.
Suez Cement 333

CLINKER
Symbols used in the Cement Industry
SYMBOL IN CEMENT MOLECULAR

NAME CHEMICAL SYMBOL
INDUSTRY MASS
MAIN INGREDIENTS
Alite or Tricalcium Silicate SiO2 - 3CaO C3S 228
Belite or Dicalcium Silicate SiO2 - 2CaO C2S 172
Tricalcium Aluminate Al2O3 - 3CaO C3A 270

Celite
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite Al2O3 - Fe2O3 - 4CaO C4AF 486
Suez Cement
CLINKER
Clinker Composition
Compounds of the Alite Belite Celite

clinker C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Range 50-75 7-30 0-16 4-20

Content
% Mean
59 17 8 9
Group
Suez Cement 335

CLINKER
Clinker composition : Bogue’s formulas
The following assumptions are made :
– the clinker consists solely of C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF
– the formation reactions are complete and unaffected by cooling
– the sequence of the reaction is :

• the C4AF forms first
• then C3A
• the remaining CaO and SiO2 combine to form C2S and C3S
(calculation starts over)
Suez Cement 336

CLINKER
Calculation of clinker composition (Bogue’s formulas)
Normal clinker
or
Suez Cement 337

CLINKER
Calculation of clinker composition (Bogue’s formulas)
Clinker with high Iron content - A/F < 0.64
Suez Cement 338

CLINKER
Heat of formation in function of the value of KS
Heat of D referred to 5 Heat of formation
KS SR A/F formation point of KS CaCO3 KS 85÷100
(Kcal/kg)
Kcal/kg Kcal/kg
455
Miscele 85 2,90 2,20 408,6 - 73,32
nuova 90 2,91 2,20 423,1 - 74,26
450 Kcal/kg = 2.6072x + 187.3
Calusco 95 2,90 2,20 438,9 - 75,09
100 2,90 2,20 451,8 - 75,88
r = 0.995
85 3,00 1,80 408,3 - 73,39 445
90 3,00 1,80 423,0 14,7 74,30
95 3,00 1,80 436,9 13,9 75,17 440
100 3,00 1,80 449,8 12,9 75,93
Ankara 85 2,72 2,61 408,6 - 72,81
435
90 2,72 2,61 422,0 13,4 73,83
95 2,72 2,61 433,7 11,7 74,74
100 2,72 2,61 445,5 11,8 75,59 430
425
420
1 KS = ~ 2.6 Kcal/kg
415
410
405
80 85 90 95 100 105
KS
Suez Cement 339

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE KILN
General Diagram
On the following diagram, we can see the evolution of the composition of

the materials in the rotary kiln.
The chemical reactions can be divided into two types :
 Reactions that occur during the solid phase
 Reactions that occur in the presence of a liquid phase (starting at 1350 °C)
Suez Cement 340

Scheme of reactions
s
nd
f C ou
n
p
t io
2S
si
co
po
de tion
l
rm itia
m
t
o
3S
el
ne si
co
m
in
C
to po
io
of
of
of
at
es om
er
n
Fo ion
I n t io n
io
at
Li dec
fo
at
at
w
a
al
rm
rm
rm
ee
y
m
it i
la
Fo
Fo
Fr
C
Kiln hood
Exit
gases
Kiln Burner pipe
feed
Dehydration
Preheating
Calcination
Clinkering
Cooling
Zone
Zone
Zone
Zone
Zone
Clinker cooler
425°C 500°C 800°C 1200°C 1750°C 1000°C

800°F 930°F 1470°F 2190°F 3180°F 1830°F
Gas temp
Mat’l temp
65°C 100°C 550°C 1100°C 1450°C 1370°C
150°F 212°F 1020°F 2010°F 2640°F 2500°F
Suez Cement 341

Diagram – Evolution of products formation inside the kiln
Suez Cement 342

Clinkering Process: C3S Formation
The most difficult compound to burn
• Formed by means of a mechanism «throughout the solution»
C2S + CaOdissolved  C3S
• Highlights two key aspects :

• The importance of the liquid phase (ar.25 %),
• The importance of the fineness of the raw meal.
Suez Cement 343

Clinkering Process: Liquid phase
This parameter (expressed in percentage) is an indicator of

the tendency of a raw meal to become fluid, helping the
velocity of reaction of the clinker compounds.
The most common experimental formula is:
At 1450oC AM > 0.64
% L.P. = 3.0 Al2O3 + 2.25 Fe2O3 + MgO + K2O + Na2O + SO3
The normal range is between 23% and 28%
Suez Cement 344

CaO Dissolution rate in clinker liquid phase
Time taken for CaO particles to dissolve (in minutes)

Temperature
Diameter of particles (mm)
(°C)
0.1 0.05 0.025 0.01
1340° 115 59 25 12
1375° 28 14 6 4
1400° 15 5.5 3 1.5
1450° 5 2.3 1 0.5
1500° 1.8 0.7 / /
Suez Cement
Influence of limestone particle size on clinker free lime
Suez Cement 346

Influence of Minor Elements on clinkerisation
MgO, TiO2, Mn2O3, SrO, Cr2O3 …
All of them, in a bigger or smaller extent, reduce viscosity

and/or melting temperature
• In fact what they do, is :

• increase the mobility of the ions
• assist the fast formation of C3S
• But :
• harmful effects can occur at high concentrations
Suez Cement 347

Fluxes and mineralizing agents
• Fluxes: reduce the temperature at which the liquid phase forms
e.g. : Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaF2, alkali
• Mineralizing agents: accelerate the speed of reaction in the

solid phase and in the molten mass
Other effects: viscosity and surface tension of the molten mass
Suez Cement 348

Influence of Minor Elements on clinkerisation
PREFERABLE PREJUDICIAL
RANGE
RANGE EFFECTS
MgO 0-5 0-2 Poor quality
Reduction in C3S
TiO2 0-4 1.5 - 2 Diminished strength
at 2 days
Mn2O3 0-4 1.5 - 2 Diminished strength
at 2 days
SrO 0-4 0.5 - 1 Breakdown of the
C3S
Cr2O3 0-2 0.3 - 0.5 Breakdown of the
C3S
Suez Cement
EFFECTS OF MINOR ELEMENTS
Element Concentration Limits Effect
Raw Meal (%) Cem. (%)
MgO 0.50 - 4.00 5 - 6 Expansion
Standards
SO3 0.04 - 1.06 2.3 - 4 Volatilisation
Standards Setting Behaviour
Emission
K2O 0.01 - 1.40 0.6 Volatilisation
Na2O 0.03 - 0.60 Low Alk.
Alkali Aggregate Reaction
P2O5 0.03 - 0.50 appr. 1.0 Reduces early strength

Cl 0.01 - 0.2 0.05 - 0.1 Volatilisation
Corrosion
F 0.00 - 0.24 Flux
Increased setting time
Suez Cement 350

EFFECTS OF MINOR ELEMENTS
Element Concentration Limits Effect
Raw Meal (%) Cem. (%)
TiO2 0.10 - 0.47 Flux
Retards initial setting
Increases strength
Cr2O3 0.01 - 0.05 “Chromium Ekzema”
Colour
Mn2O3 0.03 - 0.03 Colour
Suez Cement 351

ENVIRONMENTALLY RELEVANT COMPOUNDS
Compound Concentr. Limits Effect

Raw Meal Cement
Pyritic Sulphur 0 - 0.8 % - Emissions
(10-20% - SO2)
Organic Carbon 0.05 - 0.7 % - Emissions
(1-10 % - Volatile
Organic Carbon)
Ammonium 20-500 ppm - Emissions
- Ammoniac
- Aerosol
(NH4Cl,NH4NO3,..)
- NOx
Suez Cement 352

Clinker Cooling
Two stages :
 in the kiln (high temperature cooling)

 in the cooler (low temperature cooling)
Basic principle : fast cooling (quenching) « freezes » the clinker

just as it is in the kiln
Slow cooling encourages :
 separate crystallization of the mix into C3A and C4AF ( glass)

 conversion of C3S to C2S + liquid phase (retrogradation)
 crystallization of MgO in the form of periclase)  affects reactivity
 formation of large crystals (C3S, C2S, periclase, Free Ca0  affects
reactivity
Suez Cement 353

Properties of the main compounds of Portland cement
COMPOUND ALITE BELITE CELITE

Tetracalcium
Tricalcium Silicate
Chemical Dicalcium Silicate Tricalcium Aluminate Aluminoferrite
composition 3CaO - SiO2 (C3S) 2CaO - SiO2 (C2S) 3CaO - Al2O3 (C3A) 4CaO - Fe2O3 -
Al2O3 (C4AF)
Hydration speed Fast (hours) Slow (days) Instantaneous Very fast (minutes)
Development of
Fast (days) Slow (week) Very fast (1 day) Very fast (1 day)
strength
Strong Probably strong : tens of Poor : Poor :

Final strength
(tens of N/mm²) N/mm² a few N/mm² a few N/mm²
Medium Low : Very high : Medium :

Heat of hydration
(~ 500 J/g) ~ 250 J/g ~ 850 J/g ~ 420 J/g
Unstable in water,
Characteristic ingredient of Gives cement its
Comment sensitive to attack by
Portland cements grey colour
sulphates
Suez Cement
Relation between clinker cooling and grindability
Grindability of clinker after fast cooling and slow cooling
Suez Cement 355

QUALITY OBJECTIVES – RAW MEAL
Standard deviation in kiln feed
As already remarked, stability is one of the most important

parameters to optimize preformances and quality.
In order to get the best results, it is therefore important that the kiln
feed composition remains as stable as possible.
Standard Deviation is an indication of the stability of quality of the
chemical composition of kiln feed.
The Standard Deviation (statistic parameter) is defined as:
where is average value
Of course, the lower this parameter is, the closer the values are to
the average value, meaning a constancy of a specific parameter.
Suez Cement
Objectives : Data on standard deviation in kiln feed

(spot data on Raw Meal)
Rating Standard Standard deviation

deviation Ks SR - A/F
Unsatisfactory > 3.0 > 0.15
Poor 2.5 - 3 0.11 - 0.15
Good 1.5 - 2.4 0.06 - 0.10
Very good < 1.5 < 0.06
Suez Cement 357

Kcal/kg (heat consumption) and Kg CO2 /kg clinker as a function
of Kiln feed KS standard deviation
(Calculated on a basis of fuel with
heat consumption 81 % of C and 7800 Kcal/kg)
(from O.L.Jepsen -Fuller Company (Kcal/Kg) cal/kg)
Kg CO2/kg-cli
0,36
Fuller Cement User Seminar 1999) 900
Kcal/Kg = 39 s.d. KS + 702.4

n= 5 r = 0.993 0,34
850
0,32
800
750 0,30
Kg CO2 /kg-cli = 0.0147 s.d. KS + 0.2673

n= r = 0.993
700 0,28
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
St. dev. KS KILN FEED
Suez Cement 358

Free lime standard deviation as a function of
kiln feed KS standard deviation
1.10 S.D. FREE LIME CLINKER = 0.061+0.206*S.D. KS KILN FEED
1.00
n= 22 r=0,833
0.90
s.d. Free lime clinker
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50
S.D. KS KILN FEED
Suez Cement 359

QUALITY OBJECTIVES – CLINKER
Influence of lime saturation
Laboratory tests on industrial raw meals on burnability, setting time, hydration
heat and mechanical strength of clinker, in range of KS from 80 to100 show:
– Clinker temperature increase of 60-80°C, that could lead to higher

consumption rates of 45 th/t within the KS range considered (= 3 th/KS)
– Clinker grinding time reduction to get the same fineness in laboratory test
(13-23 %), which could correspond to a differenc in energy of 6 - 12 kWh/t
(= 0.7 (kWh/t)/KS)
– About one hour reduction in setting start and end time
– About 40% at 12 hours and 20-30% at 1-5 days increase in hydration

heat
– Better workability
– Improvement in typical mechanical strengths for each of the three cement

works considered
Suez Cement 360

QUALITY OBJECTIVES – CEMENT
28 days-strength standard deviation
according to kiln feed KS standard deviation
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
n = 37
1.50
r = 0.764
S.D. 28 D. = 1.063+0.500*S.D KILN FEED
1.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50
S.D. OF LSF KILN FEED
Suez Cement 361

QUALITY OBJECTIVES – CEMENT
% 28 day strength as a function of <90 µm fraction Ks
Italcementi Group
15.0
% 28 day strength betw een m easured and calculed
10.0
y = -0,6105x + 1,4295
r = 0,637 n = 36
(related to m easured)
5.0
0.0
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
-15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
 KS fraction < 90 µ and average kiln feed
Suez Cement 362

CEMENT TYPES AND CONSTITUENTS
Cement ENV 197-1
Cement Designation Notation Clinker G.G.B.S. Silica Pozzolana Fly ashes Burnt Limestone Minor
Type fume Natural Industrial Silic. Calcar. Shale addition
al
K S D P Q V W T L LL constit.
I Portland Cement I 95-100 - - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland Slag Cement II/A-S 80-94 6-20 - - - - - - - 0-5

II/B-S 65-79 21-35 - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland Silica Fume

Cement II/A-D 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - - - 0-5
II Portland Pozzolana II/A-P 80-94 - - 6-20 - - - - - 0-5

Cement II/B-P 65-79 - - 21-35 - - - - - 0-5
II/A-Q 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - 0-5
II/B-Q 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - 0-5
Portland Fly Ash II/A-V 80-94 - - - - 6-20 - - - 0-5

Cement II/B-V 65-79 - - - - 21-35 - - - 0-5
II/A-W 80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - 0-5
II/B-W 65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - 0-5
Portland Burnt Shale II/A-T 80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 - 0-5

Cement II/B-T 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - 0-5
II/A-L 80-94 - - - - - - - 6-20 0-5

Portland Limestone II/B-L 65-79 - - - - - - - 21-35 0-5
Cement II/A-LL 80-94 6-20
II/B-LL 65-79 21-35
Portland Composite II/A-M 80-94 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 - 20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Cement II/B-M 65-79 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21 - 35 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Blastfurnace III/A 35-64 35-65 - - - - - - 0-5

III Cement III/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - 0-5
III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - 0-5
IV Pozzolanic Cement IV/A 65-89 -  - - - - - - - - - - 11 - 35 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0-5

IV/B 45-64 -  - - - - - - - - - - 36 - 55 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0-5
V Composite Cement V/A 40-64 18-30  - - - - - - - - 18 - 30 - - - - - - - - - 0-5

V/B 20-39 31-50  - - - - - - - - 31 - 50 - - - - - - - - - 0-5
Suez Cement 363

Types and compositions (European standard ENV 197 - 1)
Portland cements Up to a maximum of 5% of other ingredients
in addition to gypsum
Portland Slag cements
Portland Pozzalana cements The cements are named for the material
added to confer upon the cement its specific
Portland Fly Ash cements characteristics.
The amount of admixture varies from 6 to
Portland Burnt Shale cements 35%, depending on limits set by the
Standards in different countries.
Portland limestone cements
Portland composite cements
Blast Furnace cement Contains 36 to 95% of blast furnace slag
Pozzalanic cement Contains 11 to 55% of pozzolan materials and

must pass the pozzolanicity test.
Composite cement Contains 18  50 % of slag and pozzolan
Suez Cement
Characteristic values for the chemical properties
European Standard ENV 197-1
1 2 3 4 5
1)
Property Test reference Cement type Strength class Requirements
CEM I
Loss on ignition EN 196-2 all  5,0 %
CEM III
2)
EN 196-2 CEM I
Insoluble residue all  5,0 %
CEM III
32,5 N
32,5 R  3,5 %
CEM I
3) 42,5 N
CEM II
Sulphate content
EN 196-2 CEM IV 42,5 R
(as SO3)
CEM V 52,5 N
52,5 R  4,0 %
4)
CEM III all
5) 6)
Chloride content EN 196-21 all all  0,10 %
Pozzolanicity EN 196-5 CEM IV all Satisfies the test
1) Requirements are given as percentage by mass of the final cement.

2) Determination of residue insoluble in hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate.
3) Cement type CEM II/B-T may contain up to 4,5 % sulphate for all strength classes.
4) Cement type CEM III/C may contain up to 4,5 % sulphate.
5) Cement type CEM III may contain more than 0,10 % chloride but in that case the maximum
chloride content must be indicated on the packaging and/or delivery note.
6) For pre-stressing applications cements may be produced according to a lower requirement. If
so, their maximum chloride content shall be stated in the delivery note.
Suez Cement
Chemical conditions required: as for the physical conditions, some are fundamental,
and are mentioned in all of the standards. Others are indicated for the particular uses
of cements to which they refer.
Condition Set limit Comments

SO3 maximum Is essential to regulate setting. In excess, however, can cause expansion
phenomena.
MgO maximum In excess, can cause expansion phenomena.
L.O.I. maximum The limit is set for cements that must contain only constituents with no loss on
ingnition (clinker, slags).
Insoluble maximum The limit is set for cements that must contain constituents soluble in acide
residue (clinker, slags).
Chlorine maximum The limit is set to avoid attack on reinforcements.
Equivalent maximum The limit is set when the Portland cements must be used with aggregates subject
Na2O to alkali-aggregates reaction phenomena.
C3S maximum Limits set for cements resistant to leaching.
C3A maximum Limits set for cements resistant to sulphates.

C3A + C4AF
Fe2O3 maximum Limits set for white cements.
Pozzalanicity - Used to control the reactions between pozzalan and lime from hydrolysis.
test
Suez Cement
Cement ENV 197-1
Compressive strength Initial Expan-

MPa setting sion
Strength
time
class Early strength Standard strength
2 days 7 days 28 days min mm
32,5 N -  16,0
 32,5  52,5  75
32,5 R  10,0 -
42,5 N  10,0 -
 42,5  62,5  60  10
42,5 R  20,0 -
52,5 N  20,0 -
 52,5 -  45
52,5 R  30,0 -
Suez Cement 367

Cement
Required physical conditions : defined by Standards or suppliers’ product

warranties
Conditions Fixed limit Comments

Starting
requisestime Min. A short setting time is detrimental to implementation
Expansion
début de Max Controls the possible limit of expansion due to uncombined lime.
Fineness
(stabilité)
prise Min. To avoid excessively
Wheneffectué coarse contrôle
en autoclave, cement les phénomènes d’hydratation
Heat Max For uses indumassive
expansifs MgO structures in order to avoid overheating
Colour
d’hydratation Min. For white cements
Suez Cement 368

Cement
Suez Cement 369

ENVIRONMENTAL
ASPECTS
Suez Cement
BASIC OVERVIEW – EMISSION LIMITS
Current emission limits for existing plants (daily average):

Italy Egypt
mg/Nm3 @10%O2
SO2 600
3000
NOx 800 300
Dust 50 300/200/100*
CO no 500
HCl 30 no
HF 5 no
* Plants built before 1995/2005/new plants
Suez Cement
NEW EGYPTIAN EMISSION LIMITS
From August 2014 all Egyptian plants will have to comply with the limits of
the new amendments to Environmental law n. 4/94
Articles alteration in Articles alteration in
Environment law 4/94
Measurements type Environment law 4/94 at 10/2005 Environment law 4/94 at Remarks
imposed limit
imposed limit October/2011 imposed limit
Imposed limit Instant Imposed limit Instant Average 15 minutes Change
500mg/m3 300mg/m3 mg/m3 100

(plants before 1994) (plants before 1995) (plants before 1995)
Dust emission from Stacks 200mg/m3 200mg/m3 mg/m3 100

(plants after 1994) (plants from 1995 till 29/10/2005) (plants before 1995) Change
Emissions from Kiln Stacks
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬ 100mg/m3 mg/m3 50

(plants after 29/10/2005) (plants after issuing the new law)
Gases & micro pollutants

Imposed limit Instant Imposed limit Instant Average 15 minuts Change
emission from Stacks
CO-1 500mg/m3 500mg/m3 250mg/m3 Change
SO2-2 3000mg/m 3
3000mg/m 3
400mg/m3 Change
NOx-3 300mg/m3 300mg/m3 600mg/m3 Change
voc-4 mg/m 50
3
mg/m 50
3
mg/m 10
3
Change
Hydrogen Chloride-5 100mg/m3 100mg/m3 mg/m3 10 Change
Hydrogen Flouride-6 mg/m3 15 mg/m3 15 mg/m3 1 Change
Lead-7 mg/m 2
3
mg/m 2
3
mg/m 23
No change
Mercury vaporous-8 mg/m3 3 mg/m3 3 mg/m3 0.05 Change
Heavy Elements (grand total)-9 mg/m3 25 mg/m3 25 mg/m3 2.5 Change
Dioxins & Furan-10 TEQ/Nm3 0.1 TEQ/Nm3 0.1 TEQ/Nm3 0.1 No change
Note: Reference gas: 10% Oxygen, 273 C, 1 atm
Suez Cement
KILN OPERATION AND POLLUTANT EMISSION
Suez Cement
PARAMETERS AND SO2 FORMATION
Factors influencing SO2 formation:

• Concentration of S in fuel
• High recirculation of sulphur compounds in the burning zone created by
high thermal loads
• Low quality fuel burning due to large particle size, fuel type, problems in
fuel transportation
• Piritic sulphur in kiln feed
Suez Cement
SO2 REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
Primary reduction methods:

• Improve combustion to avoid reducing conditions (CO)
• Increase excess air at kiln inlet
• Bypass spillage
• Use of alternative fuels with low sulphur concentrations
Secondary reduction methods:

• Scrubber installation – high cost, high maintenance
• Lime injection at the preheater outlet (current study)
Suez Cement
LIME INJECTION
• Efficiency: 20 to 50 %, depending on kind of reagent, point of injection and

kiln conditions
• Application: dry kilns with PRH/PRC in the first stages, tests in Lepol kilns
• Kind of reagents: hydrated lime or sodium carbonate in dust form
• Issues: in Lepol kilns, increase in circulating dust can compromise layer
permeability; efficiency depending from O2 and CO concentration in flue
gas, and from residence time
• Cost: investment: 250 keuro for 1750 tpd kiln; operation around 0.6 euro/t
of clinker (Beffes test)
Suez Cement
NOx FORMATION
NOx = NO (95%)+ NO2 (5%)
Suez Cement
PARAMETERS AND NOx FORMATION
Main factors influencing NOx formation:
• Raw meal burnability

• Primary air flow rate (direct or indirect firing, burner type)
– Flame O2 concentration
• Secondary air dust content
• Efficiency – type of cooler (grate, planetary…)
– Secondary air temperature
• Concentration of N in fuel (fuel-derived NOx)
• Concentration of V.M. in fuel (PRC kilns)
• Use of alternative fuels (tyres in riser duct, etc.)
Suez Cement
NOx REDUCTION – PRIMARY TECHNIQUES
Primary NOx Reduction Techniques:
• Low NOx burners; low primary air flow rate distributed in such a way as
to avoid the contact of fuel and secondary air in the volatilization zone
• Burning process stability (expert system)
• Combustion gas recirculation (approx 10% reduction)
• Flame cooling; 5-20% reduction BUT higher specific heat consumption
• Mineral additions (CaF2, iron oxides, etc.) in the raw meal; high cost
and low efficiency
• Reduction of temperature peaks in the flame due to unstable
conditions (fuel flow rate, variations in granulometry or LCV)
Suez Cement
LOW NOx BURNERS – WORKING PRINCIPLE
The aim is to have less possible O2 in the very first part of the flame, where
the devolatilization of volatile matters (normally the richest in Nitrogen)
occurs.
This can be obtained by reducing primary and transport air, so that O 2 is
minimized and fuel NOx can be as well minimized.
Another concept is to create in the second part of the flame a “fuel rich”
zone, wih a huge concentration of fuel in order to reduce air penetration
inside the fuel.
In this way CHn compounds are favorably formed, reacting successively
with O2 to become N2, reducing thus thermal NOx.
Also the external channel of axial air can be used to create a “protection”
from the immediate inlet of hot air.
Suez Cement
NOx REDUCTION – SECONDARY TECHNIQUES
Secondary NOx Reduction Techniques:
• Staged combustion: fuel and/or tertiary air divided in levels in the calciner
in order to create a reducing zone
• Selective Non Catalytic Reaction (SNCR): Ammonia or urea injection in
the riser duct (temperature = 900-1050°C)
• Selective Catalytic Reaction (SCR): Same as SNCR, except the reaction
requires a catalyser bed (temperature = 350°C)
Suez Cement

Cement Manufacturing For Technicians-1

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Cement Manufacturing

Suez Cement Title 1

Calcium carriers + acid oxide carriers Clinker

Basic oxide carrier

Type of material: Type of machine:

Low speed crushers:

High speed crushers:

• Main stress : compression, shear

• Main stress : impact

• Main stress : impact

• Main stress : impact

- CRUSHING => 1 - 3 kWh/t product

- RAW GRINDING => 15 - 30 kWh/ tproduct

- COAL GRINDING => 35 - 50 kWh/ tproduct

- CEMENT GRINDING => 30 - 80 kWh/ tproduct

GRINDING AND CRUSHING

Two kinds of machines can be observed in this process:

By making these two operations in different directions it is possible to obtain

The homogeneity of the raw materials is fundamental for the optimization

· HORIZONTAL BALL MILLS

HORIZONTAL BALL MILL

VERTICAL MILL ROLLER PRESS

Mill gear box Hot gas inlet

 LOW COST OF MAINTENANCE

 VERY WELL KNOWN COMPONENTS

 HIGH SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION (kWh/t)

 HIGH INSTALLATION COST

 LOW DRYING CAPACITY

 DOUBLE ROTATOR BALL MILL AS DRYER MILL FOR

 FINE AND ULTRA-FINE PRODUCTS.

 MAIN EVOLUTION WILL CONCERN INTERNAL PARTS

RATIO LENGTH/DIAMETER MILL

RAW CLOSED CIRCUIT 2 3

SWEPT CLOSED CIRCUIT 2

CEMENT CLOSED CIRCUIT 3  3.5

· CARE WITH COARSE MATERIAL FEEDING

· USUALLY USED FOR MILL WITH L/D < 2.5

· LOWER MAINTENANCE COST

FIRST CHAMBER SECOND CHAMBER

· USED IN OPENED CIRCUIT

THREE CHAMBERS (MILL 2.4 x 13 m)

B: Drying compartment D: Discharge arrangement

Drying chamber First compartment Second compartment

Useful diam. 2878

PAD SHOE BEARING

Step liners Wide wave liners

Wave liners Lifter classifying

Bar liners Classifying liners

 Discharge diaphragm slots > central diaphragm slots

 Trend: Flow controlling devices

 OPTIMIZING THE GRINDING PROCESS

 RUNNING THE MILL AT OPTIMUM LEVEL

 UPGRATING PLANTS WITH NEW

Grindability of the material is measured by

• Compressive strength N/cm2 (crushing)

1st compart. 2nd compart. tot/avg drying compa rtme nt

ball size max mm 90 52 42

ABSORBED POWER CALCULATION

MECHANICAL 1st comp. kW 600 630 600 589 630 610

CYCLONE STATIC DYNAMIC

MATERIAL GAS WITH FINES

Suez Cement 100

Suez Cement 101