Stress and Strain

NORMAL STRESS (symbol sigma σ)

 When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body
deforms. The way in which the body deforms depends
upon the type of force applied to it.

Compressive force F makes the

body shorter by x mm

Tensile force F makes the body

longer by x mm
 Tensile and Compressive forces are called NORMAL
FORCES. These are axial forces applied normal to a
cross-section of area A of the material.

 STRESS is the intensity of the force on a cross-

section of the material or force per unit area upon
which it acts.
 Normal Stress:
[ or Pa] (1)

F – force [N]
A – cross-sectional area []
NORMAL STRAIN (Symbol epsilon ε)
 In each case, a force F produces a deformation
x.

 STRAIN is the deformation per unit of the

original length.
[mm/mm] (2)

x – change in length [mm]

L – original length [mm]
Strain has no unit’s since it is a ratio of length to length.
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)
 Loaded elastic materials always spring back to their
original shape when the load is removed.
 They obey HOOKE’s LAW.
This is the law of spring which states that deformation x
is directly proportional to the force F.

F= kx , (3)
where k= stiffness
From eq. (3) , stiffness
(4)
From eq. (1),
(5)
From eq. (2),
(6)

Substituting for F and x from eq.(5) and eq.(6) in eq.(4):

From which, (7)

 Hooke’s Law:
(8)

 The stiffness is now in terms of stress and strain only

and this constant is called the MODULUS of
ELASTICITY (E)
 A graph of stress against strain will be a straight line
with gradient of E. The units of E are the same as the
units of stress.
 SHEAR STRESS (symbol tau
 Shear force is a transverse force applied
parallel to a surface or cross-section of the
material e.g.

When a pair of shears cut a material

When a material is punched

When a beam has a transverse load

 SHEAR STRESS is the force per unit area
carrying the load. This means the cross
sectional area of the material being cut or likely
to be cut.

 Direct Shear Stress:

[ or Pa] (9)
F - force [N]
A - cross-sectional area [
SHEAR STRAIN (Symbol gamma
The force causes the material to deform as shown in the
diagram. The shear strain is defined as the ratio of the
distance deformed to the height, x/L.

 Since 𝛾 is a very small angle,

(10)
 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY (G)
If we conduct an experiment and measure x for various
values of F, we would find that if the material is elastic, it
behaves like spring. So as long as we do not damage
the material by using force that is not too big, the graph
of F against x is straight line as shown.

 The gradient of the graph is constant

(11)
This is the spring stiffness of the block in N/m.
Or in terms of stress and strain after dividing F
by the area A and x by the height L:
(12)

This constant will have a special value for each elastic

material and is called the Modulus of Rigidity (G).

(13)
Hooke’s Law in shear:
(14)
 POISSON’S RATIO (symbol nu
For homogeneous materials (same composition
throughout the body) with same elastic properties in all
directions:
 When a prismatic bar of length and diameter is
loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied
by lateral contraction (normal to the direction of the
applied load)

Do Do-xl (εl )

Lo xa (εa)

Lo + xa
 When a prismatic bar of length and diameter is
loaded in compression, the axial contraction is
accompanied by lateral expansion (normal to the
direction of the applied load)
Do+xl (εl ) Do

Lo - xa xa (εa)

Lo

(15)
lateral strain
– axial strain