ATP hydrolysis releases energy which is used to drive many reactions. Give examples.

 Anabolic reactions such as synthesis of [ proteins ], [ nucleic acids ], [ lipids ]

and [ carbohydrates ].
 Formation of the [ mitotic spindle ].
 Movement of [ vesicles ].
 [ Active transport ]
 Maintenance of body [ temperature ].
State three reasons why ATP is ideal as an energy currency in all living organisms.
 The loss of [ phosphate ] from ATP leads to the release of [ energy ].
 ATP stores energy in [ small ] packages.
 ATP consists of small water-soluble molecules that can move around the cell.
 ATP is an immediate [ energy ] donor.
 ATP is the link between energy-[ yielding ] and energy-[ requiring ] reactions.
 ATP has a [ high ] turnover.

As energy is released during respiration it is used to synthesis ATP. The energy released from the
breakdown of glucose exceeds the energy required to synthesize ATP. What does that excess energy
become?
The excess energy released from the breakdown of glucose, not used to synthesize ATP, is released as
[ thermal energy ].
Name the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction below.

ATPase

Name the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction below.

ATP synthase
Identify the location of ATP synthase within the cell.

ATP synthase which can be found in the inner mitochondrial membrane as well as the thylakoid membrane
of chloroplasts catalyzes the reverse reaction.

Outline the role of ATP synthase.

ATP synthase is involved in [ chemiosmosis ] where it allows the flow of [ hydrogen ] ions down their
concentration gradient in order to enzymatically synthesize [ ATP ].
 Enumerate the phases of cellular respiration and identify
the locations and necessity for oxygen of each phase.

Stage Location Need for oxygen

glycolysis cytoplasm anaerobic

Prep/link Matrix of the

mitochondria aerobic
reaction

Matrix of the
Krebs Cycle aerobic
mitochondria

Oxidative Inner
phosphorylation at the mitochondrial aerobic
electron transport chain membrane
Outline glycolysis.
 The first step of glycolysis involves the phosphorylation of
glucose by the hydrolysis of two ATP.
Glucose → fructose phosphate → fructose bi-phosphate
 Fructose bi-phosphate breaks down to two molecules of
triose phosphate.
 Hydrogen is removed from triose phosphate and transferred
to the carrier molecule NAD. Two molecules of reduced
NAD are formed from every molecule of glucose entering
glycolysis. The reduced NAD may be used to generate ATP
at a later stage in respiration.
 4 ATP molecules are generated by substrate level
phosphorylation for every glucose molecule entering
glycolysis.
 The end product of glycolysis is pyruvate. For every
glucose molecule entering glycolysis two pyruvate are
formed. Pyruvate will then enter the link reaction.
 For every molecule of glucose broken down in glycolysis
there are four ATP molecules released and two ATP
molecules used up for a net gain of two ATP molecules.
Describe the link/preparatory reaction.
 Each pyruvate molecule is de-carboxylated. Two pyruvate molecules release two carbon dioxides.
 Each pyruvate molecule is oxidized and stripped of hydrogen and electrons forming reduced NADH. Two pyruvate
molecules results in two reduced NADH.
 The 3C pyruvate will become a 2C acetyl group which will be carried by CoA to form acetyl CoA. Two pyruvate
molecules will become two acetyl CoA molecules.

Identify the role of CoA during the link/preparatory reaction.

Co-A will carry the [ acetyl ] group to the [ Krebs cycle ] in the matrix of the mitochondria where it will combine with
[ oxaloacetate ].
Where does the link/preparatory reaction take place?
The link/preparatory reaction takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria.
Define phosphorylation.
Phosphorylation is the transfer of phosphate to an organic compound.
Identify the two ways ATP can be generated during respiration.
ATP may be generated by substrate level phosphorylation or by oxidative phosphorylation.
Name the two stages of respiration during which substrate level phosphorylation occurs.
During substrate level phosphorylation ATP is generated using the energy released from
reorganizing chemical bonds during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
Outline the stages of the Krebs cycle.
 Acetyl coenzyme A combines with a 4C compound, oxaloacetate to
form a 6C compound, citrate.
 The citrate is de-carboxylated yielding carbon dioxide which is
given off as a waste gas.
 It is also dehydrogenated/oxidized and the hydrogen is accepted by
NAD and FAD forming reduced NAD and reduced FAD.
 ATP is generated by substrate level phosphorylation.
 Oxaloacetate is regenerated to combine with another acetyl
coenzyme A.
 The Krebs cycle makes no direct use of molecular oxygen, but is
considered to be aerobic and will not occur in the absence of
oxygen.
 The great significance of the Krebs cycle is the release of hydrogen
which can be used to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
9700/42 (May / June) 2016 Q.9

3. a) Outline the process of glycolysis.

1 lysis / splitting / break down, of glucose ; R sugar splitting

2 (glucose) phosphorylated by ATP ;
3 raises energy level / to activate the reaction / reduces activation energy /to make it reactive ;
4 fructose (1,6) bisphosphate ;
5 (breaks down to) two, triose phosphate / TP ;
6 hydrogen removed by NAD ; A triose phosphate oxidised by NAD
7 reduced NAD formed ;
8 pyruvate produced ;
9 small yield of ATP ; [max 6]
b) Describe the series of reactions that make up the Krebs cycle.
1 oxaloacetate accepts, acetate / acetyl group / 2C fragment ;
2 to form citrate ;
3 4C to 6C ;
4 decarboxylation ;
5 CO2 released ;
6 dehydrogenation / oxidation ;
7 reduced NAD produced ;
8 reduced FAD produced ;
9 ATP produced ;
10 substrate-linked / substrate-level, phosphorylation ;
11 ref. to intermediate compounds ;
12 enzyme-catalysed reactions ;
13 oxaloacetate regenerated ; [max 9]
[Total : 15]
9700/43 (May / June) 2016 Q.9

5. (a) Outline how ATP is synthesized by oxidative phosphorylation. [8]

1 reduced, NAD / FAD ; A NADH / NADH2 / NADH + H+ for reduced NAD

2 passed to ETC ;
3 inner membrane / cristae ;
4 hydrogen released (from reduced, NAD / FAD) ; R H2
5 split into electrons and protons ; A released as electron and proton
6 electrons pass along, carriers / cytochromes ; A electrons pass along
proteins of, ETC / carrier chain
7 energy released pumps protons into intermembrane space ;
8 proton gradient is set up ; A concentration gradient of protons is created
9 protons diffuse, (back) through membrane / down gradient ;
10 ATP synthase / stalked particles / protein channels ;
11 (ATP produced from) ADP and (inorganic) phosphate ; A context for ‘final’
12 idea of oxygen as final electron acceptor ;
13 addition of proton (to oxygen) to form water / (oxygen) reduced to water ; [max 8]
State the roles of both NAD+ and FAD in the synthesis of ATP during respiration.
 NAD+ and FAD are coenzymes that remove hydrogen atoms (an electron and a proton) from food molecules (glucose) using
dehydrogenase enzymes, so are described as hydrogen acceptors.
 The reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2, transfer electrons from the various stages of respiration including glycolysis,
the link reactions and the CAC (Kreb’s cycle) to the electron acceptors (cytochromes) of the ETC.
 When NADH delivers its electrons, enough energy is captured to allow the production of 2.5 ATP molecules.
 When FADH­2 delivers its electrons, enough energy is captured to allow the production of 1.5 ATP molecules.

Outline the roles of NAD in the CYTOPLASM of a cell.

 NAD is a [ hydrogen ] acceptor.
 NAD acts as a [ coenzyme ] enabling [ dehydrogenases ] to work.
 NAD allows [ glycolysis ] to occur.
 NAD allows respiration in [ anaerobic ] conditions.

Recognize the role of dehydrogenase enzymes in the various stages of respiration.

 The dehydrogenase enzyme catalyzes the removal of hydrogen and electrons from respiratory substrates and
intermediates of the various stages of respiration and pass them on to NAD and FAD.
 Reduced NAD and FAD pass on the electrons to the electron transport chain. Energy released by the electron will be
used to pump hydrogen ions into the inner membrane space. An electrochemical gradient will be created.
 The hydrogen ions will then pass through ATP synthase complex located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
 The energy of the moving hydrogen ions will be used to generate ATP by chemiosmosis.
 This formation of ATP by the oxidation of respiratory substrates is known as oxidative phosphorylation.
Describe the structure of NAD.
NAD is made of two linked nucleotides.
Both nucleotides contain the sugar ribose.
One nucleotide contains the nitrogenous base adenine, while the
other has a nicotinamide ring.

Name the coenzyme used to transfer electrons and hydrogen

in photosynthesis.
NADP. It has a phosphate group attached to carbon atom 1 of its
ribose ring.

Name the coenzyme used to transfer hydrogen only during

the Krebs cycle.
FAD. It consists of one nucleotide containing ribose and one
nucleotide containing ribitol.
Compare the structure of NAD to that of ATP.

 ATP and NAD both contain the nitrogen containing base, adenine.
 ATP and NAD both contain the pentose sugar, ribose.
 ATP and NAD both contain phosphate groups.
 ATP consists of one nucleotide while NAD consists of two nucleotides
 ATP contains three phosphate groups whereas NAD contains two phosphate groups.
 NAD contains a nicotinamide ring not found in ATP.
 NAD contain two pentose sugars while ATP has one pentose sugar.
a) ATP and coenzyme A both play important role in respiration.
Fig.1.1 represents the molecular structure of coenzyme A.

i) With reference to Fig.1.1, state two structural similarities between coenzyme A and ATP.
three phosphates ;
ribose / pentose ;
adenine ; I nitrogenous base
ii) Describe the role of coenzyme A in respiration.

combines with, acetyl group / acetate ;

ref. to link reaction ;
(delivers, acetyl group / acetate) to the Krebs cycle ;
(acetyl group / acetate) combines with oxaloacetate ;
R Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate