McKinley A&p 4e Chap004 PPT Accessible

Because learning changes everything.
Chapter 04
Lecture Outline
Anatomy & Physiology
AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
Fourth Edition
Michael P. McKinley
Valerie Dean O’Loughlin
Theresa Stouter Bidle
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
4.1a How Cells Are Studied 1
Cytology—study of cells
• Microscopes necessary
Microscopy
• Using a microscope to view small-scale structures
• Staining techniques provide contrast
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 2
4.1a How Cells Are Studied 2
Light microscope (LM)

• Produces a two-dimensional image
• Passes light through a specimen
Electron microscope (EM)
• Beam of electrons illuminates specimen
• Greater magnification and resolution than light microscope
• Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
• Directs an electron beam through thin-cut sections; get 2-D images
• Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
• Directs an electron beam across surface of specimen; get 3-D
images
Microscopic Techniques for Cellular Studies
(a) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Al Telser; (b, c) ©Eye of Science/Science Source
Figure 4.1
4.1b Cell Size and Shape
Cells vary greatly in size and shape

• For example, an erythrocyte between 7 to 8 m
• For example, human oocyte has a diameter of 120 μm
• Most are microscopic
• Shapes vary: spherical, cubelike, columnlike, cylindrical,
disc-shaped, or irregular
The Range of Cell Sizes
Figure 4.2 Access the text alternative for slide images.
The Variety of Cell Shapes
4.1c Common Features and General Functions 1
Plasma membrane
• Forms outer, limiting barrier separating internal contents from
external environment
• Modified extensions of plasma membrane
• Cilia, flagellum, microvilli
Nucleus
• Largest structure in cell; enclosed by a nuclear envelope
• Contains genetic material (DNA); also contains a nucleolus
• Nucleoplasm—inner fluid
Cytoplasm
• Cellular contents between plasma membrane and nucleus
• Includes: cytosol, organelles, and inclusions
Cytoplasmic components
• Cytosol (intracellular fluid )
• Viscous fluid of cytoplasm
• High water content
• Contains dissolved macromolecules and ions
• Organelles (“little organs”)
• Complex, organized structures within cells
• Unique shapes and functions
• Two categories
• Membrane-bound organelles
• Non-membrane-bound organelles
Organelles (“little organs”) (continued )

• Enclosed by a membrane
• Separates contents from cytosol
• Includes endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria
• Not enclosed within a membrane
• Composed of protein
• Includes ribosomes, cytoskeleton, centrosome, proteasomes
Inclusions
• Cytosol stores temporarily
• Not considered organelles
• Molecules added to and removed from continuously
• For example, pigments, glycogen, triglycerides
The Structure of a Cell
Cells perform general functions:

• Maintain integrity and shape of a cell
• Dependent on plasma membrane and internal contents
• Obtain nutrients and form chemical building blocks
• Harvest energy for survival
• Dispose of wastes
• Avoid accumulation that could disrupt cellular activities
• Some are also capable of cell division
• Make more cells of same type
• Help maintain tissue by providing cells for new growth and
replacing dead cells
Section 4.1 What did you learn?
1. What is the advantage of using a TEM instead of an LM

to study intracellular structure?
2. Which cell is larger, an erythrocyte or a human oocyte?

What are their respective sizes?
3. Diagram the three main components of the cell and label

the plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
4. What cellular structure is responsible for forming the

boundary of a cell and maintaining its integrity?
4.2a Lipid Components 1
Plasma membrane
• Fluid mixture composed of equal parts lipid and protein by
weight
• Regulates movement of most substances in and out of cell
• Contains several different types of lipids:

• Phospholipids
• Cholesterol
• Glycolipids
Phospholipids
• “Balloon with two tails”
• Polar and hydrophilic “head”; two nonpolar and hydrophobic “tails”
• Form two parallel sheets of molecules lying tail to tail

• Hydrophobic tails form internal environment of membrane
• Hydrophilic polar heads directed outward
• Phospholipid bilayer is the basic structure of the

framework
• Ensures cytosol remains inside the cell
• Ensures interstitial fluid remains outside
Cholesterol
• Four-ring lipid molecule scattered within phospholipid
bilayer
• Strengthens membrane
• Stabilizes membrane against temperature extremes
Glycolipids
• Lipids with attached carbohydrate groups
• Located on outer phospholipid region only
• Helps form glycocalyx
Structure and Functions of the Plasma Membrane
(b) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
4.2b Membrane Proteins 1
Membrane proteins
• Half of plasma membrane by weight
• Float and move in fluid bilayer
• Performs most of membrane’s functions
• Two structural types

• Integral
• Peripheral
Integral proteins
• Embedded within, and extend across, phospholipid bilayer
• Hydrophobic regions interact with hydrophobic interior
• Hydrophilic regions are exposed to aqueous environments
on either side of membrane
• Many are glycoproteins with attached carbohydrate
groups
Peripheral proteins
• Not embedded in lipid bilayer
• Loosely attached to external or interior surfaces of
membrane
Proteins are also categorized functionally:

• Transport proteins
• Regulate movement of substances across membrane
• For example, channels, carrier proteins, pumps, symporters, and
antiporters
• Cell surface receptors
• Bind molecules called ligands
• For example, neurotransmitters released from a nerve cell that
binds to a muscle cell to initiate contraction
• Identity markers
• Communicate to other cells that they belong to the body
• These markers are used to distinguish healthy cells from cells to be
destroyed
Functional categories of proteins (continued )

• Enzymes
• May be attached to either internal or external surface of a cell
• Catalyze chemical reactions
• Anchoring sites
• Secure cytoskeleton to plasma membrane
• Cell-adhesion proteins
• Perform cell-to-cell attachments
Plasma Membrane Proteins
5. How do lipids maintain the basic physical barrier of the

plasma membrane?
6. What type of plasma membrane protein provides the

means for moving materials across the plasma
membrane? What are three subtypes?
4.3 Membrane Transport 1
Plasma membrane
• Serves as physical barrier between cell and fluid that surround it
(interstitial fluid)
• Regulates movement into and out of a cell
• Establishes and maintains electrochemical gradient
• Functions in cell communication
Membrane transport
• Process of obtaining and eliminating substance across the
plasma membrane
• Two categories
• Passive processes
• Active processes
Membrane Transport
4.3 Membrane Transport 2
Substances moved across a membrane

Passive processes of membrane transport
• Do not require energy
• Depend on substances moving down concentration gradient
• Move from area of more substance to area of less
• Two types: diffusion, osmosis

Active processes of membrane transport
• Require energy
• Substance must be moved up its concentration gradient
(active transport)
• Membrane-bound vesicle must be released (vesicular transport)
4.3a Passive Processes: Diffusion 1
Diffusion
• Net movement of ions or molecules from area of greater
concentration to area of lesser concentration
• Down the concentration gradient
• Due to kinetic energy (energy of motion) of

ions/molecules
• Influenced by temperature
• Increased temp, increased kinetic energy and rate of diffusion
Diffusion (continued)
• Also influenced by “steepness” of concentration gradient
• Measure of the difference in concentration between two areas
• Steeper gradient causes faster rate of diffusion
• If unopposed, diffusion continues until substance reaches

equilibrium
• Molecules evenly distributed throughout a given area
Diffusion
Figure 4.8
Simple diffusion
• Molecules move unassisted between phospholipid
molecules
• Small and nonpolar solutes
• Include: respiratory gases (O2 and CO2), some fatty acids,
ethanol, urea
• Not regulated by plasma membrane
• Movement dependent on concentration gradient
• Continues to move as long as gradient exists
Simple Diffusion of Solutes
Facilitated diffusion
• Transport process for small charged or polar solutes
requires assistance from plasma membrane proteins
• Two types:
• Channel-mediated diffusion
• Carrier-mediated diffusion
Channel-mediated diffusion
• Movement of small ions through water-filled protein
channels
• Channels specific for one ion type
• Leak channels
• Continuously open
• Gated channel
• Usually closed
• Opens in response to stimulus for fraction of second
• Important in normal function of muscle and nerve cells
Channel-Mediated Diffusion
Figure 4.10a Access the text alternative for slide images.
Carrier-mediated diffusion
• Small polar molecules assisted across membrane by
carrier protein
• Binding of substance causing change in carrier protein
shape
• Releases substances on other side of membrane
• Moves substances down their gradient
• Uniporter—carrier transporting only one substance
• The number of channels and carriers determines the max
rate of substance transport
Carrier-Mediated Diffusion
Figure 4.10b Access the text alternative for slide images.
4.3b Passive Processes: Osmosis 1
Osmosis
• Movement of water, not solutes
• Passive movement of water through semipermeable
membrane
• Membrane allows passage of water, prevents passage of most
solutes
• Membrane is also selectively permeable – regulates movement of
specific solutes
• Osmosis is promoted by differences in water concentration

on either side of a membrane
Two ways water crosses membrane:

• Slips between molecules of phospholipid bilayer
• Moves through integral protein water channels—aquaporins
Two types of solutes:
• Permeable solutes
• Pass through bilayer
• For example, small and nonpolar solutes such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide, urea
• Nonpermeable solutes
• Prevented from passing through bilayer
• For example, charged, polar, or large solutes such as ions, glucose,
proteins
Concentration gradients across the plasma membrane

• Between cytosol and interstitial fluid
• Solutes are prevented from moving across the bilayer
• Cause water concentrations to exist
• Greater concentration of solutes contains lower concentration of
water
Movement of water by osmosis
• Dependent upon concentration gradient between cytosol and
solution surrounding cell
• Water moves down gradient until equilibrium is reached
• For example, moves from solution of 1% solutes (99% water) into
solution containing 3% solutes (97% water)
Osmosis in Cells
Osmotic pressure
• Pressure exerted by movement of water across
semipermeable membrane
• Due to difference in solution concentration
• Steeper gradient, more water moved by osmosis and
greater osmotic pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure—pressure exerted by a fluid on the
inside wall of its container
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis and tonicity

• Cell gains or loses water with osmosis along with a
change in cell volume and osmotic pressure
• Tonicity—ability of a solution to change the volume or
pressure of a cell by osmosis
• Terms that describe relative concentration of solutions:
• Isotonic
• Hypotonic
• Hypertonic
Isotonic solution
• Both cytosol and solution have same relative
concentration of solutes
• For example, normal saline with a concentration of 0.9%
NaCl
• Commonly used in IV solutions
• No net movement of water
Hypotonic solution
• Solution has a lower concentration of solutes, higher
concentration of water than in cytosol
• For example, erythrocytes in pure water
• Water moves down concentration gradient from outside

cell to inside
• Increases volume and pressure of cell
• Lysis—rupturing of red blood cells occurs if difference is
large enough
• Hemolysis—rupturing erythrocytes
Hypertonic solution
• Solution with a higher concentration of solutes than cytosol
• For example, erythrocytes in 3% NaCl water solution
• Water moves down concentration gradient
• Moves from inside cell to outside
• Decreases volume and pressure of cell
• Crenation—cell shrinks
Erythrocytes Immersed In Three Different Solution
Concentrations
©Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Medical Images
4.3c Active Processes 1
Active processes are organized into active transport and

vesicular transport
Active transport
• Movement of a solute against its concentration gradient
(that is, from lower to higher concentration)
• Maintains gradient between cell and interstitial fluid
• Source of energy determines whether movement is

primary or secondary
Primary active transport

• Uses energy directly from breakdown of ATP
• Phosphorylation of carrier occurs

• Breakdown of ATP results in phosphate group added to transport
protein
• Changes protein’s shape and results in movement of substance

across the membrane
Ion pumps
• Cellular protein pumps that
move ions across membrane
• Maintain internal
concentrations of ions
• For example, Ca2+ pumps in
plasma membrane of
erythrocytes
• Prevent cell rigidity from
accumulated calcium
• Erythrocytes remain flexible
enough to move
Sodium-potassium (Na/K) pump

• Type of exchange pump
• Moves one type of ion into cell against gradient, while

moving another type of ion out of cell against gradient
• Plasma membrane preserves steep gradient differences
• Continuously exports Na+ out of the cell and moves K into

the cell
Na+/K+ Pump
Secondary active transport

• Moves substance against concentration gradient
• Uses energy from movement of second substance down
its gradient
• Kinetic energy providing “power” to pump other substance
• Na moves down concentration gradient
• Dependent on Na/K pumps for energy
• Two types:
• Symport
• Antiport
Secondary active transport (continued )

• Symport
• Two substances moved in same direction—symporters
• Process is called symport secondary active transport
• Antiport
• Two substances move in opposite directions—antiporters
• Process is called antiport secondary active transport
Secondary Active Transport
Vesicular transport
• Also called bulk transport
• Involves energy input to transport large substances across

the plasma membrane by a vesicle
• Membrane-bounded sac filled with materials
• Organized into processes of

• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
Exocytosis
• Large substances secreted from cell
• Macromolecules too large to be moved across membrane
• Material packed within intracellular transport vehicles
• Vesicle and plasma membrane fusion
• Requires ATP
• Contents released to outside of cell following fusion

• For example, release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
• Cellular uptake of large substances from external
environment
• Steps of endocytosis are similar to exocytosis, but in
reverse
• Pocket (invagination) forms, pinches off to form vesicle
• Used for
• Uptake of materials for digestion
• Retrieval of membrane regions from exocytosis
• Regulation of membrane protein composition to alter cellular
processes
Three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-

mediated endocytosis
Phagocytosis
• Cellular eating
• Occurs when a cell engulfs a large particle external to cell
• Forms large extensions called pseudopodia
• They surround particle, enclosing it in a membrane sac
• Sac is internalized, contents digested after fusing with lysosome
• Only a few cell types perform this
• For example, when a white blood cell engulfs and digests a
microbe
Phagocytosis 1
Pinocytosis
• Cellular drinking
• Internalization of droplets of interstitial fluid containing
dissolved solutes
• Multiple, small vesicles formed
• Performed by most cells
Phagocytosis 2
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Uses receptors on plasma membrane to bind molecules
within interstitial fluid and bring the molecules into cell
• Enables the cell to obtain bulk quantities of substances
• For example, transport of cholesterol from blood to a cell
• Cholesterol is bound to low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
• These move from the blood into the interstitial fluid, then bind to
LDL receptors in the plasma membrane
• LDLs are then internalized
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Figure 4.18c Access the text alternative for slide images.
Clinical View: Familial Hypercholesteremia
• Inherited genetic disorder

• Defects in LDL receptor or proteins of LDLs
• Interfere with normal receptor-mediated endocytosis of
cholesterol
• Results in greatly elevated cholesterol
• Causes atherosclerosis
• Greatly increased risk of heart attack
Section 4.3 What did you learn? 1
7. How does O2 diffuse into a cell and CO2 diffuse out of a

cell?
8. Diagram a flowchart for the passive processes of

diffusion and include the important characteristics, and a
sketch, for simple diffusion, channel-mediated facilitated
diffusion, and carrier-mediated diffusion.
9. What is osmosis?
10. What occurs to the tonicity of a cell when it is placed into

an isotonic, a hypotonic, or a hypertonic solution?
11. What general conclusion can you make concerning the

movement of water? There is always a net movement of
water by osmosis toward (a) an isotonic solution, (b) a
hypotonic solution, or (c) a hypertonic solution.
12. What transport process involved in the movement of Na+

down its gradient is used to power another substance up
its gradient?
13. Diagram a flowchart for the active processes of active

transport and vesicular transport. Include the important
characteristics and a sketch for primary active transport,
secondary active transport (symport and antiport), and
the four types of vesicular transport.
4.4 Resting Membrane Potential
• Plasma membrane establishes and maintains

electrochemical gradient—resting membrane potential
(RMP)
• Essential for muscle and nerve cell function
4.4a Introduction
Electrical charge difference at plasma membrane

Membrane potential—potential energy of charge difference
Resting membrane potential (RMP)—potential when a cell is at
rest
Two conditions for RMP:
1. Unequal distribution of ions/molecules across plasma
membrane
• More K+ in cytoplasm than in interstitial fluid
• More Na+in interstitial fluid than in cytoplasm
• Due to Na+/K+ pumps
2. Unequal relative amounts of positive and negative charges

• More positive on outside than inside of cell
Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
4.4b Establishing and Maintaining RMP 1
Most important ions = Na+ and K+

• Movement depends on electrochemical gradient
The role of K+
• Most important determinant in specific value of RMP
• K+ moves down steep concentration gradient through leak
channels from cytosol to interstitial fluid
• Negatively charged proteins remain inside cell
• Electrochemical gradient
• Positive charge outside repels movement of K+ out
• Negative charge on inside attracts K+ inward
• K+ moves until equilibrium is reached
The role of Na+

• Na+ diffuses into cells from interstitial fluid to cytosol
simultaneous to the loss of K+
• Enters through Na+ leak channels
• Down concentration gradient
• Pulled by electrical gradient
• Leak channels prevent as much Na into the neuron a K+
out
• Inside becomes more positive
Maintaining an RMP
• Na/K pumps significant
• Maintains K+ and Na+ gradients following their diffusion
• Na+ pumped out
• K+ pumped in
• Opposite directions
• Against concentration gradient
14. Define a resting membrane potential.

15. Explain how the resting membrane potential is
established and maintained including the role of K+, Na+,
and Na+/K+ pumps.
4.5 Cell Communication
• Plasma membrane serves an important role in cell

communication
• Structures such as glycolipids and glycoproteins facilitate
both direct interaction between cells as well as recognition
and response to external molecular signals
4.5a Direct Contact Between Cells
Direct contact between cells is important for some cells to

function
Examples:
• Cells of immune system
• Distinguishes normal cells from unhealthy cells
• Sperm and oocyte
• Egg with unique glycocalyx
• Allows for recognition by sperm during fertilization
• Cellular regrowth following injury
• Damaged tissue replaced by cell division in epidermis
• Cellular contact prevents overgrowth
4.5b Ligand-Receptor Signaling
Most cell communication occurs through ligands

• Molecules that bind with macromolecules
• Neurotransmitters from nerve cells and hormones from
endocrine cells
• Important for controlling growth, reproduction, and other
cellular processes
• 3 types of receptors that bind ligands:
• Channel-linked receptors
• Enzymatic receptors
• G protein-coupled receptors
Channel-Linked Receptors
• Permit ion passage

into or out of cells
• Occurs in response
to neurotransmitter
binding
• Help initiate electrical
changes to RMP in
muscle and nerve
cells
Enzymatic Receptors
• Protein kinase
enzymes
• Activated to
phosphorylate other
enzymes within the cell
• Provides mechanism
for altering enzymatic
activity
G Protein-Coupled Receptors
Indirectly activate protein kinase enzymes
16. What are some examples of how cells communicate

through direct contact?
17. How do the actions of enzymatic receptors and G

protein–coupled receptors differ?
4.6 Cellular Structures
• Vesicles for transport
• Structures extending from cell surface
4.6a Membrane-Bound Organelles 1
Membrane-bound organelles
• Surrounded by membrane
• Allows activities in isolated environment
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Extensive interconnected membrane network
• Varies in shape, but one continuous lumen
• Extends from nuclear envelope to plasma membrane
• Composes about half of membrane within cell
• Point of attachment for ribosomes
• With ribosomes—rough ER
• Without ribosomes—smooth ER
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
(photo) ©Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Medical Images
Rough ER
• Protein production by ribosomes, inserted into ER
• Original structure of protein changed
• Transported out in enclosed membrane sacs
• Transport vesicles shuttle proteins from rough ER lumen to Golgi
apparatus
Smooth ER
• Diverse metabolic processes vary by cell
• Functions
• Synthesis, transport, and storage of lipids
• Carbohydrate metabolism
• Detoxification of drugs and poisons
Golgi apparatus
• Composed of cisternae, elongated saclike membranous
structures
• Exhibits polarity
• Cis-face
• Proximal to ER
• Trans-face
• Distal from ER
• Functions: modification, packaging, and sorting of proteins
• Formation of secretory vesicles
• Some vesicles become part of plasma membrane
• Others release contents outside cell
The Golgi Apparatus and Endomembrane System
(a) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Lysosomes
• Small, membranous
sacs
• Contain digestive
enzymes formed by
Golgi
• Participate in digestion
of unneeded
substances
• Digest contents of
endocytosed vesicles
©Science Source; (photo) ©McGraw-Hill Education
Peroxisomes
Membrane-enclosed sacs,
smaller than lysosomes
Pinched off vesicles from
rough ER
Proteins are incorporated to
serve as their enzymes
Metabolic functions include
• Role in chemical
digestion
• Beta oxidation
• Lipid synthesis
©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source; (photo) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Electronic Publishing Services, Inc., NY
Access the text alternative for slide images.
Clinical View: Lysosomal Storage Diseases
Group of heritable disorders
Accumulation of incompletely digested molecules within

lysosomes
Mutation in genes for lysosomal enzymes
For example, Tay-Sachs disease
• Lack enzyme needed to break down complex membrane lipids
• Lipids accumulate within nerve cells
• Paralysis, blindness, deafness, followed by death by age 4
Endomembrane system
• Extensive array of membrane-bound structures
• Includes ER, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, lysosomes,
peroxisomes
• Includes plasma membrane and nuclear envelope
• Connected directly or through vesicles moving between
them
• Provides means of transporting substances within cells
Mitochondria
• Oblong shaped
organelles with double
membrane
• Aerobic cellular
respiration
• Complete digestion of
fuel molecules to
synthesize ATP
• “Powerhouses” of cell
©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
4.6b Non-Membrane-Bound Organelles 1
Ribosomes
• Contain protein and ribonucleic acid
• Arranged into large and small subunit
• Large subunit with A, P, and E sites
• Made within nucleolus and assembled in cytoplasm
• Bound ribosomes attached to external surface of ER
membrane
• Synthesize proteins for export, become part of plasma membrane,
or serve as enzymes in lysosomes
• Free ribosomes suspended within cytosol
• All other proteins within cell synthesized here
Ribosomes
(b) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
Centrosome
• Pair of perpendicularly oriented cylindrical centrioles
• Surrounded by amorphous protein
• Primary function: organizes microtubules within

cytoskeleton
• Functions in cellular division
Centrosome

Proteasomes
• Large, barrel-shaped protein complexes
• Protein-digesting organelles
• Located in cytosol and cell nucleus
• Degrade cell proteins through ATP-dependent pathway
• For example, damaged proteins, incorrectly folded proteins, proteins
no longer needed
• Proteins marked with ubiquitin tag for disposal

• With age, may be unable to normally remove proteins
Proteasomes
©Edward P. Morris
Cytoskeleton
• Plays roles in
• Intracellular support
• Organization of organelles
• Cell division
• Movement of materials
• Extends throughout cell interior; anchor proteins in
membrane
• Includes
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules
Microfilaments
• Smallest components of cytoskeleton
• Actin protein monomers in two twisted filaments
• Functions – maintain cell shape, internal support, cell division
Intermediate filaments
• Intermediate-sized; more rigid than microfilaments
• Functions – structural support, cell junctions
Microtubules
• Largest components of cytoskeleton; composed of tubulin
• May be elongated or shortened as needed
• Functions – maintain shape, cell transport, cell division
The Cytoskeleton
4.6c Structures of the Cell’s External Surface
Cilia
• Hair-like projections that move substances along cell
surface
Flagella
• Longer and wider than cilia; propels entire cell
Microvilli
• Extensions of plasma membrane that increase surface
area
Microvilli
Figure 4.31
4.6d Membrane Junctions
Tight junctions
• Strands or rows of proteins linking cells
• Prevent substances from passing between cells
• Requires materials to move through, rather than between cells
• Maintain polarity of epithelia
Desmosomes
• Composed of proteins that bind neighboring cells
• Hemidesmosomes anchor basal layer of cells of epidermis to
underlying components
Gap junctions
• Form tiny, fluid-filled tunnels
• Provide direct passageway for substances to travel between cells
(For example ions between cells in cardiac muscle)
Membrane Junctions
18. Describe the general structure of both the endoplasmic

reticulum and Golgi apparatus, and discuss their
functional relationship in the synthesis, modification,
storage, and release of molecules.
19. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are both small,
membrane-enclosed sacs. Which of these functions in
(a) both digestion and synthesis of molecules and (b)
digestion of unwanted organelles?
20. Which non-membrane-bound organelle functions to (a)
digest unwanted proteins, (b) form the structural support
of cell, (c) synthesize proteins, and (d) participate in cell
division?
21. Which cellular surface structure functions in (a)

increasing the cell’s surface area and (b) moving material
past the cell?
22. Which cellular junction (a) provides resistance to

mechanical stress, (b) allows the passage of ions
between cells, and (c) prevents leakage between cells?
4.7 Structures of the Nucleus
Largest structure in the cell
The “control center”
Cells typically have one nucleus

• Exceptions include:
• Mature erythrocytes have no nucleus
• Skeletal muscle cells have multiple nuclei
Often the nucleus mirrors the shape of the cell
4.7a Nuclear Envelope and Nucleolus 1
Nuclear envelope
• Double phospholipid membrane enclosing nucleus
• Separates cytoplasm from fluid within nucleus,
nucleoplasm
• Externally continuous with rough ER
• Nuclear pores
• Open passageways formed by proteins
• Allow passage of large molecules into and out of nucleus
• Ions and water soluble molecules pass through
4.7a Nuclear Envelope and Nucleolus 2
Nucleolus
• Dark-staining, spherical body
• Not membrane-bound
• Composed of protein and RNA
• Produces small and large ribosome subunits
• Not present in all cells
• For example, more than one in nerve cells due to production of
many proteins
• For example, absent in sperm cells because no proteins are
produced
Structure of the Nucleus
(a) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
4.7b DNA, Chromatin, and Chromosomes 1
DNA
• Housed in nucleus
• Composed of repeated monomers (nucleotides)
• DNA has deoxyribonucleotides
• Each deoxyribonucleotide composed of
• Five-carbon sugar deoxyribose
• A phosphate
• One of four nitrogenous bases
• Adenine
• Cytosine
• Guanine
• Thymine
DNA (continued )
• Nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds
• Each molecule has two complementary strands of
nucleotides
• Spiral ladder
• Sugar and phosphates form “struts” of ladder
• Pairs of nucleotide bases form “rungs”
• Connected by hydrogen bonds to the complementary
strand
• Houses most genetic material of cell
• Human has 46 separate double-stranded DNA molecules
DNA (continued )
• Each double helix is wound around nuclear proteins called
histones
• Together form nucleosomes
• When not dividing, DNA are in form of finely filamented

mass called chromatin
• When dividing, DNA chromatin becomes tightly coiled mass
called chromosomes
DNA and Chromatin Structure
DNA and genes

• Genes = stretches of nucleotides that provide instructions
for synthesis of specific proteins
• Promoter region—“start” signal
• Terminator region—“stop” signal
23. What is the function of nuclear pores within the nuclear

envelope?
24. What is the function of the nucleolus?
25. Describe the structural relationship of DNA and

chromatin, and the functional relationship of DNA and
genes.
4.8 Function of the Nucleus and Ribosomes
Cellular activities dependent upon

protein synthesis
• Directed by DNA
Transcription
• Ribonucleic acid
• Copy of a gene formed from
DNA in nucleus
Translation
• Uses RNA for synthesis of
protein by ribosomes in cytosol
Access the text alternative for slide images.
4.8a Transcription: Synthesizing RNA 1
Required structures
• DNA is the major structure required in transcription
• Serves as template for complementary RNA molecule
• Repeating ribonucleotide monomers
• Each with ribose sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous
bases (A, C, G, U); unlike DNA, no thymine
• Single strand of nucleotides
• Requires large numbers of ribonucleotides and enzyme

RNA polymerase
• Located in nucleoplasm in nucleus
Three types of RNA produced during transcription

• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Ribosomal (rRNA)
Three events of transcription
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
Initiation
• DNA unwound by specific enzymes to make it accessible to
RNA polymerase
• Enzyme that catalyzes synthesis of mRNA
• RNA attaches to DNA strand and locates promoter region

• Serves as start point for gene transcription
• Bonds broken between DNA and region expands

• DNA strand copied, template strand
• Other strand, coding strand, not copied
Elongation
• Free ribonucleotides are base-paired with exposed bases
on DNA strand
• DNA A, T, G, C pairs with RNA U, A, C, G, respectively
• Formation of hydrogen bonds between ribonucleotide and
complementary DNA base
• New phosphodiester bonds between ribonucleotides

• Form RNA polymer
• RNA polymerase moves down DNA

• Continues until entire gene is transcribed
Termination
• RNA polymerase released at terminal region of gene
• Hydrogen bonds broken between DNA and new mRNA

strand
• DNA rewinds into double helix
Process of Transcription
Modifications of mRNA
• Initially synthesized mRNA is more specifically called pre-mRNA
• Undergoes changes before leaving nucleus
• Formation of mature mRNA
• Used as recipe to make the protein
Splicing
• Noncoding regions of pre-RNA are called introns
• Removed from pre-mRNA
• Exons are transcribed nucleotide sequences in the mRNA

• Subsequently spliced together by spliceosome
• Pattern of splicing varies
• Provides means of producing larger number of proteins

from DNA
Other changes to form mature mRNA

• Bonding of a ribonucleotide containing guanine (capping)
• Bonds to lead end of mRNA
• Prevents digestion by enzymes in cytoplasm
• Addition of polyA tail

• Removal of terminal segments of mRNA
• Placing of adenine nucleotides at tail
• Multiple mRNA transcripts possible
• Mature mRNA exits nucleus following modification
4.8b Translation: Synthesizing Protein 1
Translation
• Synthesis of a new protein
• Occurs at ribosomes within cytoplasm
• mRNA threaded through ribosome
• Code in nucleotide sequence of mRNA translated
• Converted into amino acids to produce protein
Required structures
• Ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids
• Protein is the product formed
• Ribosomes
• Composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein
• Organelles composed of
• Large subunit—A site, P site, E site
• Small subunit
• rRNAs serve as catalysts during assembly of amino acids into a
protein molecule
• mRNA
• Transcribed from genes
• Carries “instructions” for synthesizing proteins
• Linear sequence of nucleotides
mRNA (continued )
• Read three bases at a time, (codon 3-base unit)
• Types of codons
• Start codon—contains AUG, signal to begin protein synthesis
• Codons following start and before stop, direct assembly
• Stop codon—where mRNA reading ends
tRNA
• Brings specific amino acids to a specific mRNA codon
• Cloverleaf shape
• Amino acid acceptor region
• Provides attachment site for specific amino acid
tRNA (continued )
• Anticodon region
• Sequence determines the specific amino acid to which tRNA
attaches
• Catalyzed by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
• After binding of amino, tRNA charged tRNA
• Serves as “adapter site” for binding tRNA to complementary codon

of mRNA
• 20 amino acids found in proteins of living things
Required Structures in Forming Protein
Amino Acids and Proteins
The Genetic Code
Raven, Peter, Johnson, George, Mason, Kenneth, Losos, Jonathan, and Singer, Susan, Biology, 11e, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education, 2017, 283.
Copyright ©2017 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
Three events of translation:

• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
Initiation
• Complex formed between ribosomal subunits, mRNA, tRNA
• Base-pairing between tRNA and start colon in mRNA
• Methionine bound to this tRNA
• Always the first amino acid in protein synthesis
• Later may be removed
• Start codon now on ribosomal P site
Elongation
• Delivery of all subsequent amino acid by specific tRNAs to
form the protein
• Three steps
• Charged tRNA with complementary anticodon base-pairs with codon
of the mRNA in the A site
• Peptide bond formed between amino acid in P site and A site
• Ribosome moves one codon “downstream”
• tRNA from A site moved to P site
• A site open again
• Uncharged tRNA released from E site
• Repeat until entire mRNA sequence translated
• Yields linear strand of amino acids
Termination
• Entrance of stop codon into A site to end translation
• Release factor enters A site instead of charged tRNA
• Two ribosome units separated
• New protein released
Polyribosome
• mRNA with many ribosomes attached
• Many copies of that protein made quickly
Process of Translation
4.8c DNA as the Control Center of a Cell
DNA directs synthesis of proteins that carry out body

functions
Indirectly responsible for other metabolic changes

• Synthesis of steroids
• Enzymatic pathway of glucose oxidation
• Controls enzymes responsible for decomposition and

synthesis of chemical structures
26. What are the three major structures required for

transcription? Explain where and how transcription
occurs.
27. What are a codon and an anticodon?
28. How is mRNA attached to ribosomes and translated into

the language of protein?
29. The genetic code of DNA is the specific instructions to

make what biological macromolecule?
4.9 Cell Division
Mitosis
• Cell division that occurs in somatic cells (all cells other
than sex cells)
Meiosis
• Cell division in sex cells (cells that give rise to sperm
or oocytes)
Somatic cell division
• One cell divides to produce two cells
• Necessary for development, tissue growth, replacement of
old cells, tissue repair
4.9a Cellular Structures
Centrosome
• Pair of cylindrical centrioles
• Organizes microtubules that facilitate chromosome

movement
Forms of DNA in the cell

• Nucleus with 46 DNA molecules
• Organized as either loosely coiled chromatin or tightly coiled
chromosomes
4.9b The Cell Cycle 1
Cell cycle depicts steps in replication of somatic cell
• Divides into two identical cells called daughter cells
• Two major phases in cell cycle
• Interphase
• Lasts approximately 23 hours
• Mitotic (M) phase
• Lasts about 1 hour
The Cell Cycle
Interphase
• Time the cell prepares for division
• DNA in loosely coiled chromatin
• Three phases: G1, S, G2
G1 phase
• Growth and production of new organelles
• Structures needed for DNA replication formed
• Replication of centrioles to produce two pairs
S phase
• DNA replicated (46 double helix strands)
• Requires deoxyribonucleotides and DNA polymerase
• All in nucleoplasm of nucleus
Steps of DNA replication:

1) Unwinding of DNA molecule
2) Breaking parent strands apart
3) Assembly of new DNA strands
4) Restoration of DNA double helix
• Process continues until both strands replicated
• Replicated strands sister chromatids
• Attached at centromere
DNA Replication
G2 phase
• Brief phase
• Centriole replication completed
• Enzymes for cell division synthesized
Interphase
©Michael Abbey/Science Source
M phase (mitotic phase)

• Follows interphase
• Includes mitosis and metaphase to produce two new cells
• Mitosis, division of nucleus; cytokinesis, division of
cytoplasm
• Four consecutive phases of mitosis:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase
• First stage of mitosis

• Chromatic supercoiled into
chromosomes with sister
chromatids
• Nucleolus broken down
• Microtubules (spindle fibers)
grow from centrioles
• Centriole pairs pushed apart to
opposite poles
• Dissolution of nuclear envelope
mark end
©Ed Reschke/ Photolibrary/Getty Images
Metaphase
• Second stage of mitosis

• Chromosomes aligned on
equatorial plate of cell
• Spindle fibers extend from
centriole attach at
centromere of each
chromosome

Anaphase
• Third stage of mitosis

• Starts as spindle fibers move
sister chromatids apart toward
poles
• Each chromatid now a
chromosome of one DNA
double helix with its own
centromere
Figure 4.42d Access the text alternative for slide images.
Telophase
• Arrival of group of
chromosomes at each pole
• Begin to uncoil and return to
chromatin
• New nucleolus formed in each
cell
• Mitotic spindle broken up
• New envelope forms around
chromosomes
• End of nuclear division
©Michael Abbey/Science Source
Figure 4.42e Access the text alternative for slide images.
Cytokinesis
• Division of cytoplasm between two newly formed cells
• May overlap with anaphase and telophase
• Ring of microfilament proteins at cell periphery

• Pinch mother cell into two separate cells
• Results in a cleavage furrow, two new daughter cells
• After cytokinesis, cell division is complete
30. How is chromatin distinguished from a chromosome?

31. Describe the process of DNA replication that occurs
during the S phase of interphase.
32. What are the events that occur during the mitotic phase
(mitosis and cytokinesis)? Explain each.
4.10 Cell Aging and Death 1
Aging
• Normal, continuous process with obvious body signs
• Not so obvious at molecular level
• Reduced metabolic function of normal cells causes
• Reduced ability to maintain homeostasis
• Lower number of normally functioning cells

• Some abnormal function of remaining cells
• Alternation in structure or number of organelles
• Changes in structure of chromatin and chromosomes
Aging (continued )
• Cell death by two mechanisms
• Killed by harmful agents or mechanical damage
• Induced to commit suicide
• Programmed cell death called apoptosis
Apoptosis
• Occurs in orderly continuous steps
• Destroys and removes cellular components and cell
remnants
• Initiated by ligand-receptor signaling
Apoptosis (continued )
• Actions initiated by enzymes during apoptosis
• Destruction of DNA polymerase
• Digestion of DNA
• Digestion of cytoskeleton
• Condensation of cytosol and destruction of organelles
• Formation of blebs (bubbles)
• Initiation of other signals to stimulate destruction of cell
• Programmed cell death occurs to
• Promote proper development
• For example, removing tissue between fingers of developing limb
• Remove harmful cells
Clinical View: Tumors
Regulatory mechanisms
• Signal cells to divide or stop dividing
Cell signaling disrupted

• Tumors arise
• Interfere with function of normal surrounding cells
• Tumor cells may enter blood or lymph and metastasize

(spread) to other areas of body
33. What are the specific changes that occur to DNA during
apoptosis?
End of Main Content
Because learning changes everything. ®
www.mheducation.com
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

McKinley A&p 4e Chap004 PPT Accessible

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

McKinley A&p 4e Chap004 PPT Accessible

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Because learning changes everything.

• Using a microscope to view small-scale structures

• Staining techniques provide contrast

Light microscope (LM)

(a) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Al Telser; (b, c) ©Eye of Science/Science Source

Cells vary greatly in size and shape

Figure 4.2 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 4.3 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Organelles (“little organs”) (continued )

• Not considered organelles

• Molecules added to and removed from continuously

• For example, pigments, glycogen, triglycerides

Figure 4.4 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Cells perform general functions:

1. What is the advantage of using a TEM instead of an LM

2. Which cell is larger, an erythrocyte or a human oocyte?

3. Diagram the three main components of the cell and label

4. What cellular structure is responsible for forming the

• Contains several different types of lipids:

• Form two parallel sheets of molecules lying tail to tail

• Phospholipid bilayer is the basic structure of the

(b) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

Figure 4.5 Access the text alternative for slide images.

• Float and move in fluid bilayer

• Performs most of membrane’s functions

• Two structural types

Proteins are also categorized functionally:

Functional categories of proteins (continued )

• Catalyze chemical reactions

Figure 4.6 Access the text alternative for slide images.

5. How do lipids maintain the basic physical barrier of the

6. What type of plasma membrane protein provides the

Figure 4.7 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Substances moved across a membrane

• Two types: diffusion, osmosis

• Due to kinetic energy (energy of motion) of

• Increased temp, increased kinetic energy and rate of diffusion

• Steeper gradient causes faster rate of diffusion

• If unopposed, diffusion continues until substance reaches

Figure 4.9 Access the text alternative for slide images.

• Important in normal function of muscle and nerve cells

Figure 4.10a Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 4.10b Access the text alternative for slide images.

• Osmosis is promoted by differences in water concentration

Two ways water crosses membrane:

Concentration gradients across the plasma membrane

Figure 4.11 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Figure 4.12 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Osmosis and tonicity

• No net movement of water

• Water moves down concentration gradient from outside

• For example, erythrocytes in 3% NaCl water solution

• Water moves down concentration gradient

• Moves from inside cell to outside

• Decreases volume and pressure of cell

©Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Medical Images

Figure 4.13 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Active processes are organized into active transport and

• Source of energy determines whether movement is

Primary active transport

• Phosphorylation of carrier occurs

• Changes protein’s shape and results in movement of substance

Sodium-potassium (Na/K) pump