Heterodox Schools of

Indian Philosophy
 Introduction
In Indian philosophy, heterodox schools refer to those that do not
accept the authority of the Vedas, which are considered the
foundational scriptures of orthodox Hindu philosophy. The
heterodox schools are known as "Nastika" schools in contrast to the
"Astika" schools, which accept the Vedas as authoritative.
• Jainism
• Buddhism
• Charvaka
 Jainism

• Founded by Mahavira (6th century BCE), Jainism emphasizes non-

violence (ahimsa), non-attachment, and asceticism. It rejects the
authority of the Vedas and the concept of a creator God. Jain
philosophy is based on the principles of karma, reincarnation, and
the eternal nature of the soul (jiva).
 Karma
Karma in Jainism refers to the universal law of cause and effect.
According to this principle, every action, whether physical, mental, or
verbal, produces certain consequences. These consequences, or
karmic fruits, may be experienced immediately or in the future,
either in this life or in subsequent lives. Jainism emphasizes the
importance of ethical conduct and the practice of non-violence
(ahimsa) to minimize the accumulation of negative karma and to
eventually attain liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and
death.
 Reincarnation

Reincarnation, or samsara, is the belief that the soul (jiva) undergoes

a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. According to Jain philosophy, the
soul is eternal and indestructible, but it becomes bound by karma due
to its actions. Through the process of reincarnation, the soul
transmigrates from one body to another, carrying with it the karmic
imprints from previous actions. Liberation from this cycle of
reincarnation is achieved by purifying the soul of all karmic bondage.
 Eternal Nature of the Soul (Jiva)
Jainism posits that the soul (jiva) is inherently pure and possesses
infinite knowledge, perception, and bliss. The soul is distinct from the
physical body and the mind, and it transcends both. It is eternal,
meaning it has no beginning and no end. However, due to its
association with karma and material existence, the soul becomes
deluded and experiences suffering in the cycle of birth and death. The
ultimate goal in Jainism is to realize the true nature of the soul,
purify it from karmic bondage, and attain liberation (moksha) from
the cycle of reincarnation.
 Buddhism

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha (6th to 5th

century BCE), Buddhism also rejects the authority of the Vedas. It
teaches the Four Noble Truths – the truth of suffering, the cause of
suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of
suffering. Buddhism emphasizes the practice of meditation, ethical
conduct, and the cultivation of wisdom to attain enlightenment
(nirvana).
 The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha)

The first Noble Truth acknowledges the existence of suffering or

dissatisfaction (Dukkha). It encompasses physical and mental
suffering, as well as the general unsatisfactory nature of worldly
existence. Suffering can manifest in various forms such as illness, old
age, death, separation from loved ones, and unfulfilled desires. The
Truth of Suffering teaches that suffering is an inherent part of life
and cannot be avoided.
 The Cause of Suffering (Samudaya)

The second Noble Truth identifies the cause of suffering, which is

craving (Tanha) and attachment (Upadana). Craving refers to the
intense desire for sensual pleasures, existence, or non-existence.
Attachment refers to clinging to things or concepts as sources of
happiness and identity. According to Buddhism, it is our attachment
and craving that lead to suffering, as they perpetuate the cycle of
birth, death, and rebirth (samsara).
 The Cessation of Suffering (Nirodha)

The third Noble Truth presents the possibility of the cessation of

suffering. It asserts that liberation from suffering is achievable
through the cessation of craving and attachment. When craving and
attachment are eradicated, suffering comes to an end. This state of
liberation, known as Nirvana, is characterized by peace, wisdom, and
freedom from the cycle of birth and death.
 The Path to the Cessation of Suffering
(Magga)
The fourth Noble Truth outlines the Eightfold Path (Magga), which
serves as the practical guide to achieving liberation from suffering.
The Eightfold Path consists of eight interconnected practices: Right
Understanding, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, Right
Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right
Concentration. By cultivating these qualities and following the path
diligently, one can gradually overcome craving and attachment,
leading to the cessation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana.
 Charvaka Philosophy
• Charvaka philosophy, also known as Lokayata, was an ancient
Indian philosophical school that emerged around the 6th century
BCE.
• Charvaka philosophy is characterized by its materialistic and
atheistic views. It denies the existence of an afterlife, karma, and
the concept of an eternal soul. Instead, Charvaka thinkers believed
that the material world is the only reality and that sensory
perception is the only valid means of knowledge. According to
Charvaka philosophy, the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of
pain are the primary goals of life. Their motto was "Eat, drink, and
be merry, for tomorrow we die."