STRUCTURAL TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE FABRICATION AND WELDING

PRE-TESTING STEEL TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE STRUCTURAL FABRICATION ERECTION WELDING PROCESSES, CONSUMABLES AND TYPES OF WELDS FASTENERS, BOLTS AND RIVETS DEFECTS, CAUSES AND REMEDIAL MEASURES

Beam (structure)
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In Light frame construction the joists rest on the beam. Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their material. In contemporary construction, beams are typically made of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood. One of the most common types of steel beam is the I-beam or wide-flange beam (also known as a "universal beam" or, for stouter sections, a "universal column"). This is commonly used in steel-frame buildings and bridges. Other common beam profiles are the C-channel, the hollow structural section beam, the pipe, and the angle.

Contents
1 Determination of the bending moment 2 Structural characteristics 3 General shapes

Determination of the bending moment

The magnitude of the bending moment along the length of a beam varies depending on the loading on the beam and the location and type of supports on which the beam is located. Typically the bending moment is calculated by making an imaginary cut through the beam where the bending moment and shear force in the beam are required to be calculated. The application and mathematical manipulation of Newton's Laws to tiny elements of material at the cut reveal the existence of the bending moment in the beam. A positive bending moment induces compressive forces above the so called neutral axis, while tensile forces are induced in the material below the neutral axis. The compressive and tensile forces result in shortening and lengthening of the material respectively above and below the neutral axis resulting in the characteristic bending found in beams.

Structural characteristics
Internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. The same original length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams that are entirely in compression. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has begun to cure, the tendons are released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are commonly used on highway bridges.

 The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the EulerBernoulli beam equation. Other mathematical methods for determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work" and the "slope deflection method". Engineers are interested in determining deflections because the beam may be in direct contact with a brittle material such as glass. Beam deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging beam, though structurally safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of elasticity and high second moment of area) produces less deflection. Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment distribution method", the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.

Diagram of stiffness of a simple square beam (A) and universal beam (B). The universal beam flange sections are three times further apart than the solid beam's upper and lower halves. The second moment of inertia of the universal beam is nine times that of the square beam of equal cross section (universal

General shapes
Mostly the beams have rectangular cross sections in reinforced concrete buildings, but the most efficient cross-section is a universal beam. The fact that most of the material is placed away from the neutral axis (axis of symmetry in case of universal beam) increases the second moment of area of the beam which in turn increases the stiffness. A universal beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down looking at the profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side , it functions as an H where it is less efficient. The most efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a square shell) however the most efficient shape for bending in any direction is a cylindrical shell or tube. But, for unidirectional bending, the universal (I or wide flange) beam is king. Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area (Volume of beam per length) subjected to the same loading conditions, the beam deflects less. Other shapes, like L (angles), C (Channels) or tubes, are also used in construction when there are special requirements.

See also
Bending and Bending Moment Bridge Building code Cantilever Classical mechanics Compression member Deflection Elastic modulus or Modulus of elasticity Elasticity (physics) and Plasticity (physics) Free body diagram I-beam Joist Light-frame construction Materials science and Strength of materials

Moment (physics) Finite element method in structural mechanics Poisson's ratio Post and lintel Second moment of area, sometimes referred to as the moment of inertia Shear strength and Shear stress Span (architecture) Statics and Statically indeterminate Stress (physics) and Strain (materials science) Structural analysis and Structural load Tensile strength, Tensile stress and Hooke's law Thin-shell structure Truss Yield (engineering)

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Contents 1 Definitions
1.1 Stress terms 1.2 Strength terms 1.3 Strain (deformation) terms

2 Stress-strain relations 3 Design terms

 In materials science, the strength of a material refers to the material's ability to resist an applied stress. The applied stress may be tensile, compressive or shear. A material's strength is a function of engineering processes, and scientists employ a variety of strengthening mechanisms to alter the strength of a material. These mechanisms include work hardening, solid solution strengthening, precipitation hardening and grain boundary strengthening and can be quantified and qualitatively explained. However, strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the material stronger. For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the material's mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions on how to increase the strength of a material depending its microstructural properties and the desired end effect. Strength is considered in terms of compressive strength, tensile strength, and shear strength, namely the limit states of compressive stress, tensile stress and shear stress, respectively. The effects of dynamic loading is probably the most important practical part of the strength of materials, especially the problem of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow slowly until failure occurs.

 However, the term strength of materials most often refers to various methods of calculating stresses in structural members, such as beams, columns and shafts, when the equations of equilibrium are not sufficient to solve the problem. In such problems, known as statically indeterminate problems, the elastic or plastic resistance of the material to deformation must be considered when calculating stresses. In this sense, the word "strength" could well be replaced by "stiffness", but the usage goes back to at least 1930 and is not likely to go away any time soon.

Stress terms
Uniaxial stress is expressed by where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2]. The area can be the undeformed area or the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is used. Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state when the material (compression member) tends to compact. A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than that of tensile stress, but geometry is very important in the analysis, as compressive stress can lead to buckling. Tensile stress is a loading that tends to produce stretching of a material by the application of axially directed pulling forces. Any material which falls into the "elastic" category can generally tolerate mild tensile stresses while materials such as ceramics and brittle alloys are very succeptable to failure under the same conditions. If a material is stressed beyond its limits, it will fail. The failure mode, either ductile or brittle, is based mostly on the microstructure of the material. Some Steel alloys are examples of materials with high tensile strength. Shear stress is caused when a force is applied to produce a sliding failure of a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the applied force. An example is cutting paper with scissors.

A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear.

Strength terms
Yield strength is the lowest stress that gives permanent deformation in a material. In some materials, like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is hard to define, thus it is usually given as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain. Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to compressive failure in the manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or in the manner of brittle failure (rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weak plane - see shear strength). Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress thats leads to tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of failure, some hardening in the second stage and break after a possible "neck" formation) or in the manner of brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces with a low stress state). Tensile strength can be given as either true stress or engineering stress. Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under cyclic loading, and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength measures. Fatigue strength is given as stress amplitude or stress range ( = max min), usually at zero mean stress, along with the number of cycles to failure. Impact strength, it is the capability of the material in withstanding by the suddenly applied loads in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or Charpy impact test, both of which

Strain (deformation) terms

Deformation of the material is the change in geometry when stress is applied (in the form of force loading, gravitational field, acceleration, thermal expansion, etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material. Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term to express the trend of the deformation change among the material field. For uniaxial loading - displacements of a specimen (for example a bar element) it is expressed as the quotient of the displacement and the length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second order tensor (with 6 independent elements). Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element bends under a load.

Stress-strain relations

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is released. In many materials, the relation between applied stress and the resulting strain is directly proportional (up to a certain limit), and a graph representing those two quantities is a straight line. The slope of this line is known as Young's Modulus, or the "Modulus of Elasticity." The Modulus of Elasticity can be used to determine stress-strain relationships in the linear-elastic portion of the stressstrain curve. The linear-elastic region is taken to be between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding (permanent deformation) occurs. Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is accepted as unrecoverable strain. Plastic deformation is retained even after the relaxation of the applied stress. Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually capable of plastic deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic deformation and will fracture under relatively low stress. Materials such as metals usually experience a small amount of plastic deformation before failure while soft or ductile polymers will plastically deform much more. Consider the difference between a fresh carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very little before breaking, but nevertheless will still stretch. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform enormously before finally breaking.

Design terms Ultimate strength is an attribute directly related to a material, rather than just specific specimen of the material, and as such is quoted force per unit of cross section area (N/m). For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is 440 MN/m. In general, the SI unit of stress is the Pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m. In Imperial units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi. Factor of safety is a design constraint that an engineered component or structure must achieve. FS = UTS / R, where FS: the Factor of Safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: the Ultimate force (or stress). Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design constraint. It is defined MS=Factor of safety - 1 For example to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel component can be worked out as R = UTS / FS = 440/4 = 110 MPa, or R = 110106 N/m.

Welding
Arc welding uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and/or an evaporating filler material. The process of arc welding is widely used because of its low capital and running costs.

Contents
1 Development 2 Power supplies 3 Consumable electrode methods 4 Non-consumable electrode methods 5 Corrosion issues 6 Safety issues 6.1 Heat and sparks 6.2 Eye damage 6.3 Inhaled matter 6.4 Interference with pacemakers

Development
While examples of forge welding go back to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, arc welding did not come into practice until much later. In 1808, Humphry Davy discovered the electric arc, initiating the development of arc welding[1] which continued with the inventions of metal electrodes by a Russian (N.G. Slavianoff) and an American (C.L. Coffin) in the late 1800s even as carbon arc welding, which used a carbon electrode, gained popularity. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released in Britain a coated metal electrode which gave a more stable arc. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C.J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.[2] Competing welding processes such as resistance welding and oxyfuel welding were developed during this time as well;[3] but both, especially the latter, faced stiff competition from arc welding especially after metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode, to stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities, continued to be developed.[4]

 During World War I welding started to be used in shipbuilding in Great Britain in place of riveted steel plates. The Americans also became more accepting of the new technology when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a German attack in the New York Harbor at the beginning of the war.[5] Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, and some German airplane fuselages were constructed using this process.[6] In 1919, the British shipbuilder Cammell Laird started construction of merchant ship, the Fullagar, with an entirely welded hull;[7] she was launched in 1921.[8] During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the 1920 introduction of automatic welding in which electrode wire was continuously fed. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems and the solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres.[9] During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals such as aluminum and magnesium. This, in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.[10]

 During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. Submerged arc welding was invented in 1930 and continues to be popular today. Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941 and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of nonferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and a carbon dioxide atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds. In that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag welding was released in 1958 and was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961.[11]

Power supplies
To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.[12]

 The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration and, as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode has an impact on weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, it will melt more quickly, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds.[13] Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds.[14] Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.[15]

Consumable electrode methods

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding. An electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or 'stick'. The electrode rod is made of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination by producing CO2 gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding.[16] Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminium, copper and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications including repair work and construction.

 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a semi-automatic or automatic welding process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi-inert shielding gas to protect the weld from contamination. When using an inert gas as shield it is known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems as well as alternating current can be used. GMAW welding speeds are relatively high due to the automatically fed continuous electrode, but is less versatile because it requires more equipment than the simpler SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it allowed for lower welding time compared to other welding processes. Today, GMAW is commonly used in industries such as the automobile industry, where it is preferred for its versatility and speed. Because it employs a shielding gas, however, it is rarely used outdoors or in areas of air volatility.[18] A related process, flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode tube surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and generates extra shielding gas and/or slag, but it permits higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.[1

 Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity automatic welding method in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself and, combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products.[20] As the arc is not visible, it requires full automatization. In-position welding is not possible with SAW.

Non-consumable electrode methods

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications.[21] A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.[22] Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

Corrosion issues
Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminum, and titanium alloys, are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the water decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the material, causing its brittleness. Electrodes for such materials, with special lowhydrogen coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be used straight from the can, but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by baking (usually at 800 to 1000 F (425 to 550 C)) in a drying oven. Flux used has to be kept dry as well.[23] Some austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to inter-granular corrosion. When subjected to temperatures around 700 C (1,300 F) for too long time, chromium reacts with carbon in the material, forming chromium carbide and depleting the crystal edges of chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in a process called sensitization. Such sensitized steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds where the temperature-time was favorable for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.

 Knifeline attack (KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels stabilized by niobium. Niobium and niobium carbide dissolves in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes, niobium carbide does not precipitate, and the steel then behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole to about 1,950 F (1,070 C), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important.[24] Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can make them corrosion-sensitive as well. There are also issues of galvanic corrosion if the electrode composition is sufficiently dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are dissimilar themselves. Even between different grades of nickel-based stainless steels, corrosion of welded joints can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic corrosion when mechanically joined.[25]

Safety issues
Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however, with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with welding can be greatly reduced. [edit] Heat and sparks Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns is significant. To prevent them, welders wear protective clothing in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks. [edit] Eye damage The brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Goggles and helmets with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure and, in recent years, new helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter glass used in helmets.[26]

In 1970, a Swedish doctor, ke Sandn, developed a new type of welding goggles that used a multilayer interference filter to block most of the light from the arc. He had observed that most welders could not see well enough, with the mask on, to strike the arc, so they would flip the mask up, then flip it down again once the arc was going: this exposed their naked eyes to the intense light for a while. By coincidence, the spectrum of an electric arc has a notch in it, which coincides with the yellow sodium line. Thus, a welding shop could be lit by sodium vapor lamps or daylight, and the welder could see well to strike the arc. The Swedish government required these masks to be used for arc welding, but they were not used in the United States. They may have disappeared.[27]

Inhaled matter Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containing particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce various gases (most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Furthermore, the use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes pose an explosion and fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.[28]

 Interference with pacemakers Certain welding machines which use a high frequency AC current component have been found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the weld site

Rivet
Contents 1 Types
1.1 Solid rivets 1.2 Blind rivets 1.3 Drive rivet 1.4 Flush rivet

2 Sizes 3 Applications 4 Joint analysis 5 Installation 6 Testing 7 High Strength Structural Steel Rivets (ASTM 502A) 8 Alternatives

 A rivet is a mechanical fastener. Before it is installed it consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite the head is called the buck-tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a pre-drilled hole. Then the tail is "upset" (i.e. deformed) so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter and holds the rivet in place. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the original head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail. Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet it can support tension loads (loads parallel to the axis of the shaft); however, it is much more capable of supporting shear loads (loads perpendicular to the axis of the shaft). Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications. Fastenings used in traditional wooden boat building like copper nails and clinch bolts work on the principle of the rivet but they were in use long before the term rivet was invented. So, where they are remembered, they are usually classified among the nails and bolts respectively.

Types There are a number of types of rivets, designed to meet different cost, accessibility, and strength requirements. These include solid rivets, blind rivets, multi-grip rivets, grooved rivets, peel type blind rivets, selfpierce rivets, plastic rivets, tubular rivets, etc. Solid rivets A typical technical drawing of a universal head solid rivet Solid rivets are one of the oldest and most reliable types of fasteners, having been found in archaeological findings dating back to the Bronze Age. Solid rivets consist simply of a shaft and head which are deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. The use of a rivet compression or crimping tool can also be used to deform these type of rivets; this tool is mainly used on rivets closer to the edge since it is limited by its depth of frame. A rivet compression tool does not require two people and is generally the most foolproof way to install solid rivets.

A typical technical drawing of a universal head solid rivet

 Solid rivets are used today in applications where reliability and safety count. A typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of solid rivets are used to assemble the frame of a modern aircraft. Such solid rivets come with rounded (universal) or 100 countersunk heads. Typical materials for aircraft rivets are aluminium alloys (2017, 2024, 2117, 7050, 5056, 55000, V-65), titanium, and nickel based alloys (e.g. Monel). Some aluminum alloy rivets are too hard to buck and must be softened by annealing prior to being bucked. "Ice box" aluminum alloy rivets harden with age. These rivets are likewise annealed the then kept under sub-freezing refrigeration (hence the name "ice box") to slow the age hardening process. Steel rivets can be found in static structures such as bridges, cranes, and building frames. The setting of these fasteners requires access to both sides of a structure. Solid rivets are driven using a hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically driven squeezing tool or even hand held hammers. Applications in which only one side is available require the use of blind rivets.

Blind rivets Blind rivets are tubular and are supplied with a mandrel through the center. The rivet assembly is inserted into a hole drilled through the parts to be joined and a specially designed tool used to draw the mandrel into the rivet. This expands the blind end of the rivet and then the mandrel snaps off. (These are also commonly called pop rivets from the sound and feel through the setting tool when the mandrel breaks.) These types of Blind rivets have non-locking mandrels and are avoided for critical structural joints because the mandrels may fall out, due to vibration or other reasons, leaving a hollow rivet that will have a significantly lower load carrying capability than solid rivets. Furthermore, because of the mandrel they are more prone to failure from corrosion and vibration.

 Prior to the adoption of blind rivets, installation of a solid rivet typically required two assemblers: one person with a rivet hammer on one side and a second person with a bucking bar on the other side. Seeking an alternative, inventors such as Carl Cherry and Lou Huck experimented with other techniques for expanding solid rivets. Unlike solid rivets, blind rivets can be inserted and fully installed in a joint from only one side of a part or structure, "blind" to the opposite side. Due to this feature, blind rivets are mainly used when access to the joint is only available from one side. The rivet is placed in a pre-drilled hole and is set by pulling the mandrel head into the rivet body, expanding the rivet body and causing it to flare against the reverse side. As the head of the mandrel reaches the face of the blind side material, the pulling force is resisted, and at a predetermined force, the mandrel will snap at the break point of the mandrel. A tight joint formed by the rivet body remains, the head of the mandrel remains encapsulated at the blind side, although variations of this are available, and the mandrel stem is ejected.

The rivet body is normally manufactured from one of three methods: Wire, the most common method Tube, common in longer lengths, not normally as strong as wire Sheet, least popular and generally the weakest option. There is a vast array of specialty blind rivets that are suited for high strength or plastic applications. Typical types include: - TriFold, a rivet that splits into three equal legs like a Molly bolt. Typically used in soft plastics where a wide footprint is needed at the rear surface. Used in automotive interiors and vinyl fences. - Structural rivet(a), an "external" mechanically locked structural blind rivet that is used where a watertight, vibration resistant connection is of importance. Typically used in manufacture or repair of truck bodies. A special nose piece is required to apply this rivet. - Structural rivet(b), an "internal" mechanically locked structural blind rivet that is used where a watertight, vibration resistant connection is of importance. Typically used in manufacture or repair of truck bodies.

 Internally and externally locked structural blind rivets can be used in aircraft applications because, unlike common "pop-rivets" the locked mandrels can not fall out and are water tight. Since the mandrel is locked into place they have the same or greater load carrying capacity as solid rivets and may be used to replace solid rivets on all but the most critical stressed aircraft structures. The typical assembly process requires the operator to install the rivet in the nose of the tool by hand then actuate the tool. However, in recent years automated riveting systems have become popular in an effort to reduce assembly costs and repetitive disorders. The cost of such tools range from $1,500 for autofeed pneumatics to $50,000 for fully robotic systems.

 Drive rivet A drive rivet is a form of blind rivet that has a short mandrel protruding from the head that is driven in with a hammer to flare out the end inserted in the hole. This is commonly used to rivet wood panels into place since the hole does not need to be drilled all the way through the panel, producing an aesthetically pleasing appearance. They can also be used with plastic, metal, and other materials and require no special setting tool other than a hammer and possibly a backing block (steel or some other dense material) placed behind the location of the rivet while hammering it into place.
Flush rivet A flush rivet is used primarily on external metal surfaces where good appearance and the elimination of unnecessary aerodynamic drag are important. A flush rivet takes advantage of a countersink hole, they are also commonly referred to as countersunk rivets. Countersunk or flush rivets are used all over the outside of many military and commercial aircraft, including the AH-64 Apache helicopter.

Sizes
Rivet diameters are commonly measured in 1/32 inch increments and their lengths in 1/16th inch increments which are expressed as "dash" numbers at the end of the rivet identification number. A 'dash 3','dash 4' (XXXXXX-3-4) designation indicates 3/32" diameter and 4/16" or 1/4" long rivet. Some rivets lengths are also available in "half sizes" and will have a dash number such as -3.5 (7/32") to indicate it as a half size rivet. The letters and numbers that precede the dash numbers, in the rivets identification number, indicate the specification under which the rivet was manufactured and the head style. On many rivets the size in /32nds may be stamped on the rivet head. Other makings on the rivet head such as small raised or depressed dimples, or small raised bars indicate the rivet's alloy. To become a proper fastener, a rivet should be placed in hole ideally 4-6 thousandths of an inch larger in diameter. This allows the rivet to be easily and fully inserted, then setting allows the rivet to expand, tightly filling the gap and maximizing strength.

Applications
Before welding techniques and bolted joints were developed, metal framed buildings and structures such as the Eiffel Tower, Shukhov Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge were generally held together by riveting. Also automobile chassis were riveted. Riveting is still widely used in applications where light weight and high strength are critical, such as in an aircraft. Many sheetmetal alloys are preferably not welded as deformation and modification of material properties can occur. Common but more exotic uses of rivets are to reinforce jeans and to produce the distinctive sound of a sizzle cymbal.

A riveted buffer beam on a steam locomotive

Joint analysis The stress and shear in a rivet is analyzed like a bolted joint. However, it is not wise to combine rivets with bolts and screws in the same joint. Rivets fill the hole where they are installed to establish a very tight fit (often called interference fit). It is difficult or impossible to obtain such a tight fit with other fasteners. The result is that rivets in the same joint with loose fasteners will carry more of the loadthey are effectively more stiff. The rivet can then fail before it can redistribute load to the other loose fit fasteners like bolts and screws. This often results in catastrophic failure of the joint when the fasteners "unzip". In general, a joint composed of similar fasteners is the most efficient because all fasteners will reach capacity simultaneously.

Installation
There are several methods for installing rivets. Rivets that are small enough and soft enough are often "bucked"[1]. In this process the installer places a rivet gun against the factory head and holds a bucking bar against the tail or a hard working surface. The bucking bar is a specially shaped solid block of metal. The rivet gun provides a series of high-impulse forces that upset the rivet in place. Rivets that are large or hard may be more easily installed by squeezing instead. In this process a tool in contact with each end of the rivet clinches to deform the rivet. Rivets may also be upset by hand, using a ball-peen hammer. The head is placed in a special hole made to accommodate it, known as a rivet-set. The hammer is applied to the buck-tail of the rivet, rolling an edge so that it is flush against the fastened material.

Manual installation of a solid rivet

Testing

A hammer is also used to "ring" an installed rivet to test for tightness and imperfections. The inspector taps the head (usually the factory head) of the rivet with the hammer while touching the rivet and base plate lightly with the other hand and judges the quality of the audibly returned sound and the feel of the sound traveling through the metal to the operator's fingers. A rivet tightly set in its hole will return a clean and clear ring, while a loose rivet will return a recognizably different sound.

High Strength Structural Steel Rivets (ASTM 502A

Until relatively recently, structural steel connections were either welded or riveted. High-strength bolts have completely replaced structural steel rivets. Indeed, the latest steel construction specifications published by AISC (the 13th Edition) no longer covers their installation. The reason for the change is primarily due to the expense of skilled workers required to install high strength structural steel rivets. Whereas two relatively unskilled workers can install and tighten high strength bolts, it took a minimum of four highly skilled riveters to install rivets in one joint at a time. At a central location near the areas being riveted, a furnace was set up. Rivets were placed in the furnace and heated to a glowing hot temperature, at which time the furnace operator would use tongs to individually remove and throw them to catchers stationed near the joints to be riveted. The catcher would place the glowing hot rivet into the hole to be riveted, and quickly turn around to await the next rivet. One worker would then hold a heavy rivet set against the round head of the rivet, while the hammerer would apply a pneumatic rivet hammer to the unformed head, causing it to mushroom tightly against the joint in its final domed shape. Upon cooling, the rivet would contract and exert further force tightening the joint. This process was repeated for each rivet. The last commonly used high strength structural steel rivets were designated ASTM A502 Grade 1 rivets. Such riveted structures may be insufficient to resist seismic loading from earthquakes if the structure was not engineered for such forces, a common problem of older steel bridges. This is due to the fact that a hot rivet cannot be properly heat treated to add strength and hardness. In the seismic retrofit of such structures it is common practice to remove critical rivets with an oxygen torch, precision ream the hole, and then insert a machined and heat treated bolt.

HIGH TENSILE FASTENERS Indias largest manufacturer and exporter of High Tensile Fasteners, Sundram Fasteners Limited produces the complete range of standard and special fasteners. High Tensile Fasteners are produced in five state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities across the globe. OPERATIONAL EXCELLENCE Pursuit of excellence, over the years, has meant acquiring in-depth expertise in metal forming, machining, heat treatment and assembly; operator-assured quality; and customer-oriented design and development. As the business has grown with an expanding global customer base, the Company has steadily invested in creating additional capacities at multiple locations. Sundram Fasteners was the first Indian manufacturing company to be ISO 9000 certified; the first to obtain a large, single sourced auto component order from a global OEM customer the radiator caps business from General Motors, USA; the first to set up a Just In Time (JIT) supply chain from India to the US, including a JIT warehouse in the US; the first Indian company to win the global Supplier of the Year award for several years from General Motors; among the first to adopt, and get recognized for Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) practices in India; and so on.

Seawater corrosion
Seawater corrosion is a form of corrosion of metal exposed to seawater. Typically in such cases the metal is a structural component of a vessel (ship or boat) or a fixed structure either on the shore, offshore, or underwater. In these cases, seawater corrosion typically acts on a time scale of months to years. Corrosion is faster with higher salinity and to a lesser extent higher temperatures. Vessels that are only in seawater temporarily, e.g. trailer able boats, often do not require much corrosion protection. Structures that do need to be in seawater over the longer term are often protected with one or more pieces of zinc. Since this zinc corrodes faster than almost any other metal (see the Galvanic series), these pieces of zinc are referred to as sacrificial zincs and must be replaced periodically, with the replacement interval possibly being as short as a few months. In general, sacrificial zincs should be inspected frequently, at least until a baseline rate of loss is established, and then at regular intervals based on this projected rate of loss. Often, different components of a vessel or structure are each protected by their own zinc. For example, the cooling system of an engine, the propeller shaft, any metal rudders and, for metal-hulled boats, the hull itself are each protected by one or more zincs. It has been suggested that vessels in a harbor or marina with electrical connections to shore power are all at approximately the same ground potential, so the zinc on one vessel may help protect other vessels (which may lack such protection), and may corrode correspondingly faster.