Cambridge Physics - iGCSE

13 – Practical Physics
13 – PRACTICAL PHYSICS
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13 – PRACTICAL The worker inside the cage is

PHYSICS quite safe, despite the 2.5
 WORKING SAFELY million volt sparks from the
 PLANNING AND huge Van de Graaff generator.
PREPARING The electric discharges strike
 MEASURING AND the metal bars, rather than
RECORDING pass between them, so the
 DEALING WITH DATA cage has a shielding effect. In
 EVALUATING AND fact, if safety procedures were
IMPROVING ignored, some of the
 INVESTIGATIONS TO experiments done in a school
TRY laboratory would be much
 • PRACTICAL TESTS more dangerous than this
one.
13.01 – Working Safely
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Working safely
► When carrying out physics experiments, you
need to be able to do the following:
 Handle equipment and materials safely.
 Follow instructions carefully.
 Change how you carry out each step of
an experiment, depending on what
happened the time before. ▲A yellow bunsen
► Here are some reminders about how to
flame is easier to see
work safely with different types of equipment: than a blue one.
Bunsens and tripods
 If a bunsen burner is alight, but not in use, always leave it on the
yellow flame setting so that the flame can be seen.
 Make sure that bunsens and tripods have a heatproof mat
underneath.
 Give a hot tripod plenty of time to cool down before attempting to
move it.
 Don’t attempt to move a tripod when there is a beaker resting on it.
13.01 – Working Safely
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Glass thermometers
 Don’t put glass thermometers where they can roll off the
bench.
 Keep glass thermometers away from bunsen flames.
 Support thermometers safely: see Safe support below.
 Mercury, used in some thermometers, is toxic. If a
thermometer breaks and mercury runs out, don’t handle it.
Glass tubing
 Never attempt to push glass tubing (or glass thermometers)
through a hole in a bung. The laboratory technician has a
special tool for doing this.
 Always handle hot glass tubing with tongs. Rest it on a
heatproof mat; don’t put it straight on the bench.
 Hot glass tubing can stay hot for a long time. Give it plenty
of time to cool down before you attempt to pick it up.
13.01 – Working Safely
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Safe support
 When clamping a test-tube, don’t
overtighten the clamp. And make
sure that the clamp has soft pads to
touch against the glass. This also
applies when clamping a glass
thermometer.
 In experiments where you have to
suspend a load, make sure that the
supporting clampstand is stable
enough to take the heaviest load ▲In experiments
you will be using. You may need to like this, make sure
that the apparatus is
weigh it down for this, as shown in stable enough to
the diagram on the left. support the heaviest
13.01 – Working Safely
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Safe support
 Before making any changes to the wiring in your
circuits, always switch off the power or disconnect the
battery.
 Remember: low voltage circuits may not give you a
shock, but they can cause bums if the current is too
high and a wire overheats.
 Never make a direct connection across the terminals of
▲Emergency!
a battery. Don’t put wires or tools where they might
connect across the terminals. But the first job is
to switch off the
 If a mains appliance is faulty, switch off the power and power and pull
pull out the plug. Don’t change the fuse. Ask the out the plug.
laboratory technician to deal with the fault.
 Electrical fires: see slide 8.
In many modern laboratories, the mains circuits are protected by RCDs
(residual current devices), so the risk of shocks is reduced. But...
 If someone has been electrocuted, and is still touching the faulty
appliance, don’t touch the person. Switch off the power and pull out the
plug.
13.01 – Working Safely
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Eye protection
 Always wear eye protection (e.g. safety
goggles) when:
o stretching metal wires or plastic cords
o breaking or grinding solids (e.g. rock
samples)
o heating liquids
o dealing with acids, alkalis, or any other liquid chemicals that
might splash.
Light
 Don’t look directly into a laser beam or other source of bright
light. Don’t stand where laser light might be reflected into your
eyes.
 If you need to study the Sun’s image, project it onto a card.
Never look through a telescope or binoculars pointing straight
at the Sun - even if there is a filter in front.
13.01 – Working Safely
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Flammable
Radioactive sources liquid
 The radioactive sources used in school
laboratories should always be sealed.
 Radioactive sources should be kept well away Hot
from the body, and never placed where they are Water
pointing at people.
Fire
 Don’t heat flammable liquids (e.g. methylated
spirits) over a bunsen. If heating is required, a
water bath should be used - with hot water
heated well away from the experiment. ▲The only
 Don’t throw water on burning liquids (e.g.
safe way to heat
methylated spirits). Smother the fire with a fire a flammable
blanket or use a carbon dioxide extinguisher. liquid is to use a
 Don’t throw water on electrical fires. Switch off water bath
the supply and use a carbon dioxide
extinguisher.
13.02 – Planning and Preparing
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► This spread should help you plan an experimental procedure.

The handwritten notes show part of one student’s commentary
on her procedure.
Presenting the problem
► Start by describing the problem you are going to investigate,
and the main features of the method you will use to tackle it.
13.02 – Planning and Preparing
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Making a prediction
► You may have an idea of what you expect to
happen in your enquiry. This prediction is called
your hypothesis. You should write it down. It may
not be right! It is just an idea. The aim of your
procedure is to test it.
13.02 – Planning and Preparing
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Dealing with variables

► Quantities like
length, current,
and voltage are
called variables.
They can
change from
one situation to
another.
13.02 – Planning and Preparing
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Key variables
► These are the variables that can affect what happens
in an experiment. You must decide what they are. For
example, in the nichrome wire experiment, length is
one of the key variables because changing the length
of wire changes the resistance.
► You must also decide how to measure the variables,
and over what range. For example, in planning the
nichrome wire experiment, you would have to:
 decide what the highest voltage and current
values should be (safety must be considered
here)
 decide what lengths of wire to use.
13.02 – Planning and Preparing
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Controlling variables
► A fair test When doing an experiment, you should change
just one variable at a time and find out how it affects one
other. If lots of variables change at once, it will not be a
fair test.
► For example, if
you want to find
out how the length
of a wire affects its
resistance, it
wouldn’t be fair to
compare a long,
thick wire with
short, thin one.
13.02 – Planning and Preparing
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Final preparations
► Decide what equipment you
need, how you will arrange it,
and how you will use it.
► To help your planning, you
may need to carry out a trial
run of the experiment. Before
you do this, make sure that
all your procedures are safe.
► Prepare tables for your
readings before you start
your experiments. Look at the
next spread on getting the
evidence before doing this.
13.02 – Planning and Preparing
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Final preparations I am not sure how big the

maximum current will be,
so I will do a trial run of
the experiment first. I
will start with an ammeter
that can measure several
amperes, but may be able
to change to a more
sensitive meter for the
main experiment.
Safety:
I must make sure that the
power supply is switched
off before I remove the
nichrome wire to change
its length.
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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► This spread should help you take and

record measurements correctly.
Units
► When you write down a measurement,
remember to include the unit. For example:
voltage = 2.3 V
► If you just write down ‘2.3’, you may
not be able to remember whether this ▲When
was supposed to be a voltage of 2.3 V or recording readings
2.3 mV. in a table (see
► When writing measurements in a table, you Spread 13.02),
remember to
don’t need to put the unit after each
include a unit in the
number. But be sure to include the unit in heading at the top
the heading at the top of each column. You of each column.
can see an example on the right.
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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Uncertainties
► No measurement is exact. There is always
some uncertainty about it. For example,
you may only be able to read a voltmeter to
the nearest 0.1 V.
► Say that you measure a voltage of 2.3 V
and a current of 1.2 A. To work out the
resistance in ohms (Ω), you divide the
▲You can only
voltage by the current on a calculator and
read this voltmeter
get... to the nearest 0.1
1.916 666 7 V.
► This should be recorded as 1.9 Ω. Uncertainties in your voltage
and current readings mean that you cannot justify including
any more figures. In this case, you are giving the result to two
significant figures.
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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Take enough readings

► For a graph, you should have at least five sets of readings.
► Not all experiments give you readings for a graph. Sometimes,
you have to measure quantities that don’t change - the diameter
of a wire for example. In cases like this, you should repeat the
measurement at least three times and find an average. Repeating
a measurement helps you spot mistakes. It also gives you some
idea of the uncertainty. Look at this example.
► The diameter of a wire was measured four times:
1.41mm 1.34 mm 1.19 mm 1.30 mm
► You can work out the average like this:
average = = 1.31 mm
► The original four numbers ranged from less than 1.2 to more than
1.4. So, the last figure, 1, in the average of 1.31, is completely
uncertain. Therefore, you should write down the average
diameter as 1.3 mm.
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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Reading scales
► On many instruments, you have to
judge the position of a pointer or level
on a scale and work out the
measurement from that. Here are
some ways of making sure that you
take the correct reading:
A. Using a glass thermometer to
measure the temperature of a liquid:
keep the liquid well stirred, give the
thermometer time to reach the
temperature, and keep the lamp in the
liquid while you take the reading.
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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B. Using a ruler: be sure that

the scale is right alongside
the point you are trying to
measure. (Errors due to an
incorrect line of sight are
called parallax errors.)

C. Measuring a liquid level on

a scale: look at the level of
the liquid’s flat surface, not its
curved meniscus.
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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D. Using a ruler: Reading a meter: look at

the pointer and scale ‘square on’.
(The pointer may have a flat end like that
shown here, so that you can look at it edge
on.)
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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► Can you read the instruments below correctly? The

answers on next slide:
13.03 – Measuring & Recording
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► Can you read the instruments below correctly? The

answers on next slide:
5.4 N
47 °C
36 counts/second

0.79 mV

86 kPa
13.04 – Dealing with Data
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► This page should help

you to analyse your data
and draw conclusions
from it. The handwritten
notes show part of one
student’s commentary on
her enquiry.
13.04 – Dealing with Data
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Drawing a graph
► A graph can help you see trends in your data.
► Choosing axes Decide which variable to put along the bottom
axis. Usually, it is the one you chose to vary by set amounts -
the length of nichrome wire, for example. This is the
independent variable. The resistance would be the
dependent variable because its value depends on the length
you chose. It goes up the side axis.
► Choosing scales Check your
highest readings, then choose the
largest scales you can for your
axes.
► Labelling axes Along each axis,
write in what is being measured
and the units being used.
13.04 – Dealing with Data
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Drawing a graph
► Drawing the best line Because of uncertainties, the points on
a graph will be uneven. So don’t join up the points! Instead,
draw the straight line or smooth curve I that goes closest to
most of them. This is called a line of best fit. Before you draw
it:
 Decide whether the line should go through the origin.
 Decide whether any readings should be rejected.
Some may be so far out that they
are probably due to mistakes
rather than uncertainties. See if
you can find out why.
► From the way points scatter about a
line of best fit, you can see how
reliable your readings are, But for this,
you need plenty of points.
13.04 – Dealing with Data
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Trends and Conclusions

► From the shape of your graph, you can draw conclusions about
the data.
► The simplest form of graph is a straight line through the origin. A
graph of resistance against length of wire might be like this. If
so, it means that if the length doubles, the resistance doubles
… and so on. In this case, resistance and length are in direct
proportion.
► If you think that your graph supports your original prediction,
then say so and explain the reasons.
13.05 – Evaluating & Improving
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► This page should

help you decide
how reliable your
conclusions are,
and how your
procedure could be
improved or
extended.
13.05 – Evaluating & Improving
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Reliability
► In reaching your conclusions, remember that there are
uncertainties in your measurements, and variables that you
may not have allowed for. So your results can never prove
your original prediction. You must decide how far they
support it.
► If you think that your results are unreliable in any way, see if
you can explain why.
► You may have some results which do not agree with the
others and look like
mistakes. These are
called anomalous
results. Try to explain
what caused them.
13.05 – Evaluating & Improving
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Suggesting improvements
► Having completed your procedure, suggest ways of
improving it so that your conclusions are more reliable.

Looking further
► Suggest some further work which might produce extra
evidence or take your procedure further.
13.05 – Evaluating & Improving
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Writing your report

The student's commentary was designed to help you understand the
different stages of an procedure. It includes far more detail than you would
normally put in a report. When producing your own report, these are the
things you should include:
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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► Here are some suggestions for practical work. Some

are full investigations. Others are shorter exercises to
help you develop your experimental skills.
Measuring newspaper
► Plan and carry out experiments to measure:
a. the thickness of one sheet of newspaper
b. the mass of one sheet of
newspaper
c. the density of the paper used.
► Start by thinking about the following:
If a single sheet is too thin to
measure accurately, how can you
improve the accuracy?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Wet or dry?
► The makers of a well-known brand of soft tissue
paper claim that their tissues are just as strong wet
as dry. Are they right? Plan and carry out an
enquiry to test their claim.
► Start by thinking about the
following:
What is meant by the ‘strength’ of
a tissue? Do you need use a
whole tissue? When comparing
tissues, how can you make sure
that your test is fair?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Fine or coarse?
► Coarse glasspaper (‘sandpaper’) rubs through a
wooden surface more quickly than fine glasspaper.
But does it produce more friction? Plan and carry out
experiments to find out.
► Start by thinking about the following:
► How can you measure the frictional force when
glasspaper is rubbed on wood? How can you keep
the glasspaper pressed against the
wood? Will the force used to press
the glasspaper against the wood
affect the result? How can you make
sure that your test is fair?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Pendulum
► The time of one complete swing of a
pendulum is called its period.
► The period of swing might be affected by
these factors: the mass of the bob, the
amplitude (size) of the swing, the length of
the pendulum.
► Plan and carry out an enquiry to find out
which factors affect the period.
► Start by thinking about the following:

► The period of your pendulum will probably

be a couple of seconds at most. How are
you going to find the time of one swing
accurately? How are you going to measure the size of the swing?
► Note: make sure that the top of the pendulum string is firmly held
so that there is no movement at that point.
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Pendulum - Further work:

► Find out how the period of
one pendulum compares
with another of four times
the length.
► Is there a simple
connection between the
length and the period?
► Does the connection work
for other lengths as well?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Stretching rubber
► A company wants to market a cheap
spring balance for weighing letters.
Their designer suggests that, to save
money, they could use a rubber band
instead of a spring.
► Their technician says that this would
be unsatisfactory because rubber
bands change length and
‘springiness’ once they have been
stretched.
► Who is correct? Plan and carry out
an enquiry to find out.
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Find the mass

► Plan and carry out an experiment to find the mass of a lump
of Plasticine (or some other solid). You are not allowed to
use a balance with a mass scale already marked on it. And
you are not allowed to use slotted masses of less than 50 g.
Further work:
► Take the problem a stage further. Plan and carry out
experiments to measure a much smaller mass - such as the
mass of a pen or pencil.
► This time, you can use a selection of standard masses down
to 5 g.
► Start by thinking about the following:
► Your original design will probably not be sensitive enough to
measure a small mass. Can it be modified in some way to
make it more sensitive?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Bouncing ball
► Some table tennis balls have more ‘bounce’ than
others. Plan and carry out an enquiry to compare
the bounce of two table tennis balls.
► Start by thinking about the following:
What is meant by ‘bounce’?
What do you need to measure?
When comparing the balls, how
can you make sure that your
test is fair?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Parachute design
► The diagram on the right shows a
simple model parachute. Plan and
carry out an enquiry to find out if
there is a link between the design
of the parachute and the speed at
which it falls.
► Start by thinking about the following:
Shape and area are two possible features of the
design. Will you investigate both? How will you
make sure that your tests are fair? How will you
work out the speed of fall?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Double-glazing
► In cooler countries, people fit double-glazing in their houses
because two layers of glass, with air between, are supposed
to lose thermal energy (heat) more slowly than a single
layer. But does double-glazing cut down
thermal energy loss? Plan and carry out
an enquiry to find out.
► Start by thinking about the following:
How are you going to set up a double
layer of glass with air between? What
will you use as a source of thermal
energy? How will you tell whether the
flow of thermal energy is reduced when Glass
the extra layer of glass is added? Will Glass
your test be fair? Air
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Salt on ice
► During winter, salt is often sprayed on the roads to melt the
ice. Pure ice has a melting point of 0°C. Adding salt to ice
affects the melting point.
► Plan and carry out experiments to find out how the melting
point of ice changes when salt is mixed in. Find out if there
is a connection between the melting point and the
concentration of salt in the ice. (The concentration can be
measured in grams of salt per cm3 of ice.)
► Start by thinking about the following:
How will you make sure that the salt
and ice are properly mixed? How
are you going to measure the
melting point?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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The speed of sound

► In the diagram on the right, someone is
holding a vibrating tuning fork above a
measuring cylinder. Sound waves travel down the
cylinder and back, and make the air inside vibrate.
If the length of the air column is exactly a quarter of
the wavelength of the sound, the air vibrations are
strongest and the air gives out its loudest note. The
effect is called resonance.
► The speed of sound is linked to its frequency and
wavelength by this equation:
speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) X wavelength (m)
► Using the information above, plan and carry out an enquiry to find
the speed of sound in air.
► Start by thinking about the following:
As a measuring cylinder has a fixed length, how will you vary the
length of the air column inside?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Apparent depth
► The person in the diagram on the right is looking at a pin on
the bottom of a beaker of water. Light from the pin is refracted
(bent) when it leaves the water. As a result, the water looks
less deep than it really is and the pin appears closer to the
surface than it really is.
► Plan and carry out an experiment to find the
apparent depth of some water in a beaker.
► Start by thinking about the following:
If you look at a pin in some water, it is an
image of the pin which you are seeing. How
can you locate the position of this image?
Could you use a similar method to that used
to find the position of an image in a mirror?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Two pairs or one?

► People claim that two pairs of socks are warmer than
one. But does an extra pair cut down the loss of
thermal energy (heat)? Plan and carry out an enquiry to
find out. (You do not have to use warm feet as your
source of thermal energy!)
► Start by thinking about the following:
How are you going to tell
that one object is losing
heat more rapidly than
another? How will you
make sure that your test
is fair?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Image size and distance

Image on
screen Convex lens

Ray Box

Place a bright object well away from a convex lens as in

the diagram, and you can get a clear image on a screen. Tissue
If you move the object closer, the size and the position Paper
of the image both change, and you need to move the
screen to get a clear image again. Card
with
Is there a connection between the size of the image and square
its distance from the lens? Plan and carry out an enquiry hole in it
to find out.
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Current-voltage investigations
► Plan and carry out experiments to find out how the
current in each of the following depends on the
voltage across it:
1) nichrome wire, kept at constant temperature
2) the filament of a lamp
3) a semiconductor diode.
► Start by thinking about the following:
How will you vary the voltage across each
component and measure the current in it? What
checks must you do to make sure that the current
in each component is safe, and does not cause
damage?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Making a resistor
► Resistors are used for keeping voltages and
currents at correct levels in electronic circuits.
► Using nichrome wire, make a resistor with a
resistance of 5 O.
► Start by thinking about the following:

How does the length of wire affect

its resistance? How is resistance
calculated? What circuit will you
use to test the nichrome? From
your measurements, how can you
work out how much wire you need?
13.06 – Some Experimental Investigations
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Thermistor Investigation
► Thermistors have a resistance that varies considerably
with temperature. They can be used as temperature
sensors. Plan and carry out an experiment to find out
how the resistance of a thermistor varies between 0 °C
and 100 °C.
► Start by thinking about the following:
How will you change and control Thermistor
the temperature of the
thermistor? How will you
measure the resistance of the
thermistor? How will you make
sure that your circuit doesn’t
heat up the thermistor?
13.07 – Taking a Practical Test
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Taking a practical test

► This spread should help you if you have to take a
practical test in physics.
► The test is the same at both Core and Extended
Level. You will not need any knowledge of physics
beyond Core Level. There are two typical questions
on the opposite page.
► Instead of doing a practical test, you may have to sit
an alternative-to-practical examination paper. Your
teacher will be able to tell you which form of
assessment applies to you. There are some sample
alternative-to-practical questions in Section 15
(iGCSE practice questions).
13.07 – Taking a Practical Test
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Apparatus used in the test

► In your test, you could be asked to carry out
experiments involving the following:
 Measuring physical quantities such as length,
volume, or force.
 Cooling and heating (for example,
Question 1 on the next page).
 Springs and balances (for example,
Question 2 on the next page).
 Timing motion or oscillations.
 Electric circuits.
 Optics equipment such as mirrors,
prisms, and lenses.
13.07 – Taking a Practical Test
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Preparing for the test

► Before taking a practical test, there are certain things you need to
be familiar with. These are listed in Practical preparation on slide
55. Most also apply if you are taking the alternative-to-practical
paper.
► Go through the list and check them one by one.
During the test
► Make sure that you can do the following:
 Take plenty of readings.
 When you record your readings, remember to include the
correct units. If you are putting your readings in a table, the
column headings should also include the correct units.
 Record readings or results with a suitable degree of accuracy.
 Identify any anomalous results.
 Justify your conclusions by referring to your data.
 Identify any possible causes of uncertainty.
► For more information about any of the above, see slide 57.
13 – Exam Questions
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1. In this experiment you are to investigate the effect of insulation

on the rate of cooling of hot water.
Record your observations in tables like those at the bottom of the
page. Carry out the following instructions, referring to the diagram
below.
You are provided with two ?
beakers labelled A and B.
Beaker B is insulated. Do
not remove this insulation.
You also have a supply of hot water,
a. Pour hot water into beaker A until it is approximately two
thirds full,
b. Measure the temperature 0 of the hot water. Record this
temperature in the table for time t = 0s.
c. Start the stopwatch and then record the temperature of the
water at 30 s intervals for a total of 4 minutes.
13 – Exam Questions
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d. Complete the column headings in the table,

e. Use the data in the table to plot a graph of θ (y-axis) against
t (x-axis). Draw the best fit curve.
f. Repeat steps (a) - (d) using beaker B. ?
g. Use the data obtained from part (f) to plot another curve on
the same graph axes that you
used for part (e).
h. The experiment you have just
done was designed to
investigate the effect of
insulation on the rate of
cooling. Suggest two
improvements that could be
made to the design of the
experiment.
13 – Exam Questions
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2. In this experiment, you will investigate the stretching of a spring.

Carry out the following instructions, referring to the diagram. The
spring may have been set up for you. Do not change its position.
a. i. Measure the vertical distance d0 in mm between the
bottom of the spring and the surface
of the bench.
ii. Copy the diagram (there is no need
to show all the details of the spring).
Mark clearly the distance you have
measured. Then copy the table
below. ?
iii. Hang a 1.0 N load on the spring.
Record the value of the load L in the
table. Measure, and record in the
table, the distance d between the
bottom of the spring and the surface
of the bench.
13 – Exam Questions
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a. iv.. Calculate the extension e of the spring using the

equation e = (d0 - d). Record the value of e in the table.
v. Repeat steps iii and iv using loads of 2.0 N, 3.0 N,
4.0 N and 5.0 N. Record all the readings and results in
the table.
[4]
b. On graph paper, plot a graph of e/mm (y-axis) against L/N (x-
axis). [4]
c. Determine the gradient G of the graph. Show clearly on the
graph how you obtained the necessary information.
[2]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 51
Paper 5 Q1 November 2012

?
13 – Summary
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Use the list below to help you prepare for your practical test. You can either
photocopy it or print it from the file on the CD accompanying this book.
The page number, in brackets, tells you where to find more information.
Core and Extended Level
Check to make sure that you know how to do each of the following.
Most of these also apply if you are taking an alternative-to-practical
examination paper.
 Identify key variables,

(page 280)
 Explain why certain variables should be controlled,

(page 281)
 Measure lengths to the nearest half millimetre using a rule,

(page 283)
 Measure angles to the nearest half degree using a protractor,
13 – Summary
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 Measure a force, such as weight, using a spring balance,

(page 36)
 When using meters or other instruments with scales on them, be able
take readings that lie between the divisions on the scale,

(page 283)
 Calculate simple areas and volumes: for example, the area of a
rectangle or triangle, or the volume of a rectangular block,

(pages 18 and 296)

 Allow for zero errors when making measurements,

(page 15)
 Record readings, or do calculations, with a suitable level of accuracy -
and not include too many significant figures,

(page 282)
