Term 1 Revision

Robin Kerr, KULISC

 KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
 KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Area under the graph – break the area into rectangles

1
(base x height) and triangles ( 2 base x height)
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Graphical Derivations of the Equations of Motion

Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Deriving the Equations of Motion

① a = (v t– u)
v = u + at
② s (u + v)
2 t (u +2 v) t
= s=
rearrange ①: s = ut + 121 at2
s = vt –
at2 2
at = v – u
v2 = u2 +
∴ v = u + at 2as
③
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Deriving the Equations of Motion

sub ③ into
v = u + at
②:
(u + v) t
2
s = (u + u2+ at) t s=

s = ut + 121 at2
s = (2u 2+ at) t s = vt –
2
at2
2ut + at2
s= 2 v2 = u2 +
2as
∴ s = ut + 12 at2
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Deriving the Equations of Motion

from ③, make u the subject

then sub this into ②:
v = u + at
u = v – at; s=
(u +2 v) t

s = (v – at + v) t
2 s = ut + 121 at2
s = vt –
2vt – at 2
at2 2
s=
2
v2 = u2 +
2as
∴ s = vt – 21 at2
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Deriving the Equations of Motion

from ③, make t the subject

v = u + at
then sub this into ②:
s=
(u +2 v) t
t = (v –a u) ;
s = ut + 121 at2
s = (u + v)(v – s = vt –
at2 2
u)
2a
(v – u2)
2
v2 = u2 +
s=
2a 2as
2as = v2 – u2
∴ v2 = u2 + 2as
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

SUVAT
Equations
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

(Constant speed)

(Constant speed)
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Another example of a distance-time graph

?
?
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

Velocity-time graph
Constant

Constant

Constant

Constant
Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

?
?

?
?

?
?

*all acceleration and deceleration in this graph is constant – why?

Introduction to Kinematics KULISC

This velocity-time graph shows the velocity decreasing in one direction and
increasing in the opposite direction. If we decide that is
negative and is positive then the graph tells us: The object is
initially travels at 5 m/s It slows down by 0.5m/s every second
After 10 seconds the object has stopped.
? It then begins to move
It gains 0.5m/s every second until it is travelling at 5m/s
Velocity (ms-1)

Time (s)
 KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
Stress and strain KULISC

Deforming Solids
Forces can be used to change the speed, direction and
shape of solid objects.
Here we will focus on using forces to change the shape
of a solid object either temporarily or permanently.

compressive force

tensile force
Stress and strain KULISC

• Stress is defined as a compressive or tensile force applied over an area of

an object. The SI unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1 N m-2.

• Strain is a measure of how much an object gets bigger or smaller under

applied load. It is the ratio between the deformed length and the original
length.
Stress and strain KULISC

Tensile Stress, 

Force applied per unit

cross-sectional area
stress = F/A  = F/A (units, Nm-2 or Pa)
The largest tensile stress applied prior to breaking is
known as the ultimate tensile stress (UTS)

A tensile stress will cause a tensile strain

Stress and strain KULISC

Tensile strain, 
Tensile strain measures how the extension of a material
compares to its unstretched length

 = L/Lo (no units)

 steel wire = 0.01 before breaking = 1%
 spider silk = 0.15-0.30 before breaking = 30%
Stress and strain KULISC

Young’s Modulus
The gradient of the linear
region gives the Young’s
Modulus of the object.

Stress, σ
Units: N m
? -2

Young’s Modulus is a
measure of the elasticity of
an object under tension or
compression. = stress = 
strain 
Elastic: The material Plastic: The material is
Strain, ε
returns to its original permanently deformed.
shape and size once force
is removed.
source: TU Delft
Stress and strain KULISC

Overall, the force-extension graph of a spring

looks similar to a stress-strain graph, right?

Yes, BUT look at the axes.

What is the unit for the Young’s Modulus?

N m-2, not the same as? the spring coefficient!
Stress and strain KULISC

Bone has a greater

? Young’s Modulus than rubber

Mild steel has a greater

? Young’s Modulus than bone
Stress and strain KULISC

The equation for stress,  = F and strain,  = x

A L
substituting: E =  F/A
 x/L

This can also be written as: E = F . L

A x
E = F.L
A.x

NB: L = x
 KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
Heat, temperature and internal energy KULISC

Internal energy
• Potential energy is due to the interaction of
neighbouring particles.
• This is therefore very significant in solids
and liquids but less so in gases.
• In fact ideal gases have NO potential
energy – just kinetic…more when we look
at ideal gases!
Heat, temperature and internal energy KULISC

Internal energy
• Kinetic energy is due to the movement
(including vibrations) of the particles in the
substance.
• The faster they move
– the higher the KE and
– the higher the temperature
Heat, temperature and internal energy KULISC

Thermal
Energy
• Two objects may have the same
temperature, but different amounts of
thermal energy transferred as heat
depending on…
• temperature
• mass
• type of material (i.e. metal vs.
cloth)
Heat, temperature and internal energy KULISC

Thermal
Energy
• Which beaker of water has more
thermal energy?
– B - same temperature, more mass

80ºC 80ºC

A B
400 mL

200 mL
Heat, temperature and internal energy KULISC
Specific heat capacity KULISC

Specific Heat
Capacity
• When you give heat energy to a substance it
gets hotter if the heat is used to increase the
KE of the particles.
• How much hotter depends on two things:
– Its mass and
– What it is made of
Specific heat capacity KULISC

Specific Heat
Capacity
• It makes sense that
– the more of it you have the more energy you would have
to give it to raise the temperature a certain amount of a
substance and that
– different materials would need different amounts of heat
to get hotter as their structure and the number of particles
in a certain mass is different for each type.
• Values are therefore quoted for the heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1K
Specific heat capacity KULISC

The Specific Heat Capacity (SHC)

Equation
Q = m.c.
m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)
Q = heat energy (J)
 = temperature (K)

What happens to the energy if temperature is increased?

What does a high specific heat capacity mean?
Specific heat capacity KULISC

The Specific Heat Capacity Equation

Q = m.c.

• The biggest changes in temperature of a

given mass of a substance will occur in
those that have low specific heat capacities -
because it doesn't take much energy for
them to get hotter!
Specific heat capacity KULISC

Equation
• It makes sense that the more of the substance you have to
melt/boil the more energy you will have to supply.
• Therefore we have quoted values for how much energy is
required to change the state of one kilogram of various
substances
• As the values relate to 1kg the values are termed as the
specific latent heat – symbol l (for latent!)
• The unit of l is therefore J/kg
Q = ml
Specific heat capacity KULISC

Equation
• Q = ml

• l = specific latent heat (J/kg)

m = mass (kg)
• Q = Heat energy (J)

• The  indicates that heat can be input to

change ‘up’ a state or given out when a
• substance changes ‘down’ a state
Specific heat capacity KULISC

Definitions
• Specific latent heat is the energy required to
change the state of 1 kg of a substance.
• Specific latent heat of fusion is the energy
required to change the state of 1 kg of a
substance form a solid to a liquid.
• Specific latent heat of vaporisation is the
energy required to change the state of 1 kg of a
substance form a liquid to a gas.
Introduction KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
Ideal gas behaviour KULISC

The ideal gas law: advantages & limitations

Pressure/ Pa

Volume/ m3
Increasing temperature Decreasing pressure
Extrapolation

Extrapolation
0 0
0 1/Volume, m -3
0 Temperature, K
p vs. 1/V at different temperatures. Volume vs. temperature at different pressures.
• Boyle’s Law • Charles’ Law
𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
• What’s the relationship between temperature and pressure?
Ideal gas behaviour KULISC

The ideal gas law: advantages & limitations

Pressure/ Pa

Pressure/ Pa

Volume/ m3
Increasing temperature

Decreasing pressure

Extrapolation
0 0
Temperature/ °C 0 Volume, m 3
0 Temperature, K
• Boyle’s Law:
• The pressure law: • Charles’ Law:

= constant
Ideal gas behaviour KULISC

The ideal gas law: advantages & limitations

==
But what is an ideal gas?
Assumptions:
8.31 J K -1
mol -1
• There are no intermolecular forces between the gas particles.
• The volume occupied by the particles is negligible compared to the volume of the
container they occupy.
• The only interactions between the particles and with the container walls are
perfectly elastic collisions.

• The ideal gas law holds true when…

• Pressure is low, so that space between atoms and molecules is
high and intermolecular interactions are rare.
Introduction KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
Average kinetic energy KULISC

pV = 1/3 × Nmc2

Mean square speed: the average of the square speeds of all the particles
Units: m2s-2

Therefore the root mean square speed = crms

Units: ms-1

pV = 1/3 × Nm(crms)2
 KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
Centripetal Force
KULISC

v
Angular velocity
S is the length of the v
arc S
θ =r
r is the radius of the  = vr θ
circular path v is axis of
tangential velocity rotation

 is angular velocity  = 2pf = 2p/T

f = frequency in
revolutions/s
The angle an object rotates through per
second θ =t F = centripetal force – this is the force
F = mv2/r, therefore F = m2r that stops the object flying off at a
tangent.
 KULISC

Selected revision topics:

• Velocity-time graphs
• Stress, strain & Young’s Modulus
• Temperature of a substance under constant heating
• Ideal gas law and ideal gas equation
• Root mean square speed
• Centripetal forces
• Gravitational vs electric vs magnetic fields
Fields
KULISC

Gravitational Fields Electric Fields

Force F= F=
Field strength g= E=
Potential V=– E=
Magnetic Flux, Flux Density and Field Strength KULISC

Force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field

For a wire at an angle (θ) to the magnetic field lines, the force is:

𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
So when the wire is parallel to the magnetic field, sinθ = 0 and so
F = 0.

A moving charge in a magnetic field

𝐹 = 𝐵𝑄𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
 KULISC

Good luck!