Term 2, Week 1

Electricity, Electronics and Applications Part 1:

Electric Current, EMF and Potential Difference

Robin Kerr, KULISC

 KULISC

Learning objectives

• Define current
• Look at electric current as rate of flow of charge
• Illustrate E.M.F. and potential difference
• Introduce the concept of resistance and internal resistance
• Look at potential difference in terms of energy transfer
 KULISC

Learning objectives

• Define current
• Look at electric current as rate of flow of charge
• Illustrate E.M.F. and potential difference
• Introduce the concept of resistance and internal resistance
• Look at potential difference in terms of energy transfer
Current KULISC

Current

Last week, we considered moving charges within conductors.

What is a moving charge called?

Current KULISC

Electric Charge, Q (units C)

Electrical charge is a fundamental unit.

The charge on a single

electron is – 1.60x10-19 C

It takes 6.25x1018
electrons to transfer 1 C
of charge
Current KULISC

Electric Current, I (units A)

Current KULISC

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow

of charge in a circuit. As electrons are
charged particles then current can be thought
of as the rate of flow of electrons.
 KULISC

Learning objectives

• Define current
• Look at electric current as rate of flow of charge
• Illustrate E.M.F. and potential difference
• Introduce the concept of resistance and internal resistance
• Look at potential difference in terms of energy transfer
Current KULISC

Copper ball (negatively Copper ball (positively

charged; more electrons) charged; fewer electrons)
– Metallic wire +
+
– – +
–
A –
? + B +
–
–
– Flow of electrons + +
+
?
Direction of conventional current

When current is constant:

Q (coulombs)
I (amperes) =
t (seconds)
Current KULISC

Drift velocity and Current

The drift velocity, as it is called, is of the order of 10-3 ms-1 .

When the electrons move through the crystal lattice they collide with metal ions
Each collision imparts kinetic energy from an electron to an ion.
The ions thus gain vibrational energy and as a consequence the temperature rise
This phenomenon is called ohmic heating.
Current KULISC

I - current flowing in wire

L - length of conductor
A - cross-sectional area
n - number of free electrons
per unit volume
− +
e - charge on an electron
v - average electron drift velocity

When an electric field is applied across the conductor,

calculating the current depends on the amount of charge
passing point A in unit time.

The volume of the wire is given by: V = A.L

Current KULISC

If there are n free electrons per m3 then number of

electrons in the wire sample = n.V
If each electron carries charge, Q, then charge in the
wire sample = n.V.Q

The time t for all the electrons in the sample to travel

from one face to the other is the time for one electron
(on the far left) to travel the whole length.
Current KULISC

Lv and as I= Q
t= t

substituting for Q and t

n.V.v.
so I=
I = n.V.e e L
v
L
I = n.A.v.e
 KULISC

Learning objectives

• Define current
• Look at electric current as rate of flow of charge
• Illustrate E.M.F. and potential difference
• Introduce the concept of internal resistance
• Look at potential difference in terms of energy
transfer
Potential Difference KULISC

Voltage / Potential Difference, V

Voltage or potential difference is the work done per unit
charge / the difference in potential energy per unit charge.

One unit of charge = 6.28x1018 electrons = 1 coulomb

Potential Difference KULISC

If 1J of work is done on 1C this is called 1 volt (V)

Electromotive force (EMF) is the potential difference between two terminals

when no current is flowing, ie. open circuit

Charge moves around a circuit losing potential

energy as it goes.
Potential Difference KULISC

Electromotive force, also called EMF (denoted and

measured in volts), is the voltage developed by
any source of electrical energy such as a battery
or dynamo. It is generally defined as the electrical
potential for a source in a circuit
Potential Difference KULISC

Series and Parallel Batteries

Series battery: cells connected

+ve to –ve

Parallel battery: cells connected

+ve to +ve and –ve to –ve
 KULISC

Learning objectives

• Define current
• Look at electric current as rate of flow of charge
• Illustrate E.M.F. and potential difference
• Introduce the concept of resistance and internal resistance
• Look at potential difference in terms of energy transfer
Resistance KULISC

Electrical Resistance
The resistance of an electrical conductor is caused by free
electrons colliding with positive metal ions and depends on
several factors:
Length, l; the longer the conductor
the more collisions the electrons
will have. Doubling the length
doubles the resistance
- it is directly proportional.
Resistance KULISC

Area, A; The wider a conductor the

more gaps there are between the ions.
As area increases resistance decreases -
area is inversely proportional to
resistance.
Resistance KULISC

Temperature, T; As the temperature increases the ions energy increases

and they vibrate more and the electrons are more likely to collide with
them.
As the temperature increases the resistance increases - temperature is
proportional to resistance.
Resistance KULISC

The material of the conductor; the structure of any

two metals is similar but not the same, some metal
ions are closer together, others have bigger ions.
Resistance KULISC

Summary
Resistance KULISC

Resistivity
Free electron Length of conductor, L

Positive pole
Negative pole

Cross section of
conductor, A
Metal ion Empty position Foreign atom
Resistance KULISC

Resistivity, , m ; this is a factor that accounts for the

structure of the metal and the temperature. Each metal
has it’s own value of resistivity for each temperature.

So the resistance of a material can be calculated by:

R = . L
A
At room temperature the resistivity () of Copper is
1.7x10-8 m and Carbon is 3.0x10-5 m. When both are
heated their resistivities increase.
Resistance KULISC

Measuring resistivity: In order to measure the resistivity of a wire

we need to measure the length (L) and cross-sectional area A
(using A = r2) and the resistance R.
Remember the resistance R is calculated by measuring and then
dividing the pd by the current using the following set up:

Then rearrange the equation to give:  = R.A

L
Resistance KULISC

Superconductivity: The resistivity (and so resistance) of

metals increases with temperature. So conversely
lowering the temperature lowers the resistivity.
When certain metals are
cooled below a ‘critical
temperature’ their resistivity
drops to zero allowing massive
currents to flow with no
energy loss as heat - these
metals are known as
superconductors.
Resistance KULISC

Uses of superconductors:
Resistance KULISC

Ohm’s Law: We know that a voltage causes a current to flow and the size
of the current depends on the size of the pd.
In order to obey Ohm’s Law the current flowing is proportional to
the pd causing it to flow.
To fulfil the parameters of V = I.R the resistance must be constant.
Resistance KULISC

I - V Graphs
Resistors: when the pd is
zero so is the current.

pd is proportional to
current so the resistor is
known as an
ohmic conductor
Resistance KULISC

Filament lamp: As more current flows the metal

filament gets hotter. The metal atoms vibrate faster
and further from their positions. This results in an
increase in collisions with travelling
electrons increasing resistance.
Resistance KULISC

Diode: increasing the pd in one direction increases the

current but in the reverse direction the pd does not
make a current flow.
This is called forward bias.
As the resistance changes it is
non-ohmic.
Resistance KULISC

Variable resistor 1; Rheostat:

This is a resistor whose value can be changed.

Older symbols for a

variable resistor
Resistance KULISC

Variable resistor 2;
Potentiometer:

Newer symbols for a variable resistor

Resistance KULISC

Thermistor:
The resistance of a thermistor varies with
temperature. Low temp = high resistance; High
temp = low resistance
Resistance KULISC

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor):

Dim light = high resistance; Bright light =low
resistance
Resistance KULISC

Internal resistance
Resistance KULISC

Real battery cells are not made of materials with

zero resistance, so it follows that they are not just
pure voltage sources. They also possess internal
resistances. Therefore they are modelled as an
EMF connected to a resistor in series.

So V < EMF
Resistance KULISC

Internal resistance:
Resistance KULISC

Lithium cell:
Resistance KULISC

V/I Graph for a single cell

E = VR + I.r
E - I.r = VR
VR = -r.I + E
(y = mx + c for
straight line)
 KULISC

Learning objectives

• Define current
• Look at electric current as rate of flow of charge
• Illustrate E.M.F. and potential difference
• Introduce the concept of resistance and internal resistance
• Look at potential difference in terms of energy transfer
Work done by EMF KULISC

Formula for Potential Difference / Voltage

pd or V = W or pd =
E
Q
Q

pd - potential difference
V - voltage
W - work done
Q - charge
E - energy
Work done by EMF KULISC

NB: the negative sign indicates that the direction of the

decreasing potential is in the same as the field direction
Work done by EMF KULISC

If V1 = –4V and V2 = +3V

Total energy released by

electron when it moves from
the object at V1 to the
object at V2 is:

E = e.(V1 – V2)
E = 1.6x10-19.(–7)
= 1.1x10-18J
Work done by EMF KULISC

Kirchoff’s Laws

Kirchoff’s First Law:

The sum of the currents

entering any point in a
circuit is equal to the
sum of the currents
leaving the same point
Work done by EMF KULISC

Kirchoff’s Second Law

Kirchoff's second law (voltage law) states that the

algebraic sum of the products of resistance and current
in each part of any closed circuit is equal to the algebraic
sum of the emf's in that closed circuit. This law is a
consequence of conservation of energy.
Work done by EMF KULISC

Important Equations:

Q
I= Q =n
t I.t

V= QE V = I.R
 KULISC

Group activity

• Two groups will each find as many real-world applications of Kirchoff’s Laws
as possible.
• Each application must be accompanied by a brief explanation.
• Each group will present their findings to the class.
• Ensure that each group member speaks for an approximately equal amount
of time.
• The group with the most valid applications will be the winner.